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This study tested whether the bivariate association between simple reaction time (SRT) and executive function (EF) performance that has been observed in early childhood represented a between- and/or within-person association. Up to three repeated assessments (i.e., fall, winter, and spring assessments from September to May) were available for 282 preschool-aged children (M[subscript age] = 4.2 years; 54% female) who participated in the Kids Activity and Learning Study. A series of three-level hierarchical linear models (repeated measures nested in child; child nested in classroom) was used to disaggregate the observed variation in EF and SRT into between-classroom, between-person, and within-person components. EF composite scores were regressed on two indicators of SRT, which reflected between- and within-child sources of variation, along with demographic covariates (child age, gender, and parental education). Both between-person (b = 21.2, p < 0.001) and within-person (b = 13.2, p < 0.001) sources of SRT variation were uniquely related to EF performance. These results are discussed with respect to interest in using SRT as a proxy for foundational cognitive processes that contribute to EF task performance in early childhood, including the appropriateness of using SRT to refine EF task scores.

Several mental health programs have been developed in clinics and transported into schools, which has great potential for increasing access to intervention for students who may not be otherwise served. However, such programs may lack consideration of the complexity and constraints of schools, including the diversity of student needs and backgrounds, raising questions about their effectiveness in this context. This study evaluates the efficacy an evidence-based clinical program--the Incredible Years® Dina Dinosaur School small group treatment program--under such realistic conditions. A total of 138 first- and second-grade students identified as having self-regulation difficulties were randomized to Business as Usual or intervention, which included delivery of 34 group and 12 individual recess coaching sessions over 6 months, teacher consultation and in-service presentations, and three parent workshops. Multi-method outcome measures were collected before and after the intervention and at 6-month follow-up, evaluating self-regulation, disruptive behavior, social competence, and academic proficiency. The results indicated few significant main effects and consistently small effect sizes. Effects were generally larger for self-regulation and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) outcomes as well as for students at risk for ODD; however, meaningful improvement on functional school outcomes was limited. Findings suggest less impact than clinic-based delivery which typically includes a parent program component, although reduced effects may also be related to lower fidelity in some of the child groups. The results contribute to understanding transportability and have useful implications for school mental health programming. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED618482.]

The aim of this study was to explore the effects of preschooler PA in two separate environments (indoor/outdoor) on measures of executive functions in preschoolers. Eighteen preschool-age (3-5 years) children were recruited for the study. Participants of the study wore an accelerometer for 30 min during indoor classroom-based activities and 30 min during outdoor PA. Pre and post inhibitory control and simple reaction time assessments were completed for each condition, for a total of four assessments for each participant. One assessment of the inhibitory control task (Arrows) resulted in a significant interaction of time x condition, F(1,16) = 3.42, p = 0.08, partial [eta][superscript 2] = 0.18. These results indicate that performance improved in response to outdoor PA, but declined in response to indoor classroom activities. This research suggests that outdoor PA may result in cognitive benefits that are not observed following indoor classroom activities on one assessment of inhibitory control. Providing more scheduled time for PA for preschoolers is recommended for these reasons.

This study utilized latent profile analyses to identify unique configurations of children's family-based social experiences during the first 3 years of life and examine differences across profiles with respect to developmental outcomes at 36 and 48 months of age. Seven family process variables were used: maternal emotional functioning, maternal sensitivity, negative controlling parenting, cognitive stimulation, corporal punishment, adult-adult aggression, and household disorganization. Data were collected by the Family Life Project (N = 1,087), a longitudinal study of families living in low-wealth, nonurban areas, for whom the biological mother was the child's primary caregiver from 6 to 36 months of age. On average, mothers were 26 years of age at 2 months of child age. Approximately 36% of the families lived below the federal poverty limit, and 41% identified as Black; 49% of children were female. Latent profile analyses identified four groups: (a) positive exposure (b) average exposure, (c) problematic adult functioning, and (d) problematic parenting. Comparisons indicate that children in the positive exposure profile had the highest levels of socioemotional and cognitive outcomes compared to overall profiles. Children in the problematic adult functioning and problematic parenting profiles had the most problematic child outcomes, with children in the problematic parenting profile scoring lowest overall. Results indicate that there is configural heterogeneity in family-based social experiences at the highest levels of risk and that exposures to problematic parenting may be more consequential for later child outcomes than exposures to problematic adult functioning in the absence of compromised caregiving.

This study investigated the utility of including teacher-reported callous-unemotional (CU) behaviors in the assessment of disruptive behaviors in school-based research. Participants included 138 first- and second-grade children (68% male; 76% eligible for free or reduced-price lunch; 61% Black, 9% Latinx, 23% White, and 7% multiracial) who completed assessments during the baseline assessment of an intervention study. Results indicated that teachers could distinguish CU from traditional indicators of disruptive behavior, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviors and conduct problems (CP). When considered alone, there was mixed evidence for the utility of CU behaviors. Although higher levels of CU behaviors explained unique variation in teacher-reported social competence and global impairment, CU behaviors did not explain unique variation in disciplinary infractions, classroom behavior, or academic functioning after accounting for ADHD and CP behaviors. A different pattern of results was evident when CU was considered in conjunction with ADHD and CP behaviors. Latent profile analyses identified three subgroups of participants (i.e., a nondisruptive group, an ADHD group, and a comorbid group, who exhibited elevated levels of ADHD, CP, and CU). Compared to the nondisruptive group, the ADHD group exhibited higher rates of off-task classroom behavior and worse academic functioning. The comorbid group exhibited moderate-to-large differences from both groups on teacher-reported and objective outcomes. The implications of these results are discussed with respect to the potential value of incorporating CU behaviors, which are becoming prominent in clinical psychology and psychiatry, into school-based research and for school psychology practice.

Previous studies have documented that individual differences in fine and gross motor skills are associated with executive function (EF) skills. This study used an experimental design to test whether participating in cognitively challenging motor skills activities was causally related to improvements in motor skills and two key indicators of school readiness: executive function and early numeracy skills. The motor skill program involved fine and gross motor game-like activities that were delivered in a small group format. Activities were socially engaging and progressively challenged children based on their motor competencies. Fifty-three preschool-aged children participated in 16 motor skill sessions across 8 weeks. There were significant treatment effects for all outcomes, such that children in the treatment condition exhibited significant improvements in motor, EF, and early numeracy skills, compared to their peers in the waitlist control condition. Treatment effects on EF skills were stronger for inhibitory control than working memory. Improvements in numeracy were most pronounced for children with initially lower levels of ability. Motor skill-based interventions are an ecologically valid and developmentally appropriate approach for fostering school readiness skills in early childhood. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED611702.]

Substantial evidence has established that individual differences in executive function (EF) in early childhood are uniquely predictive of children's academic readiness at school entry. The current study tested whether growth trajectories of EF across the early childhood period could be used to identify a subset of children who were at pronounced risk for academic impairment in kindergarten. Using data that were collected at the age 3, 4, and 5 home assessments in the Family Life Project (N = 1,120), growth mixture models were used to identify 9% of children who exhibited impaired EF performance (i.e., persistently low levels of EF that did not show expected improvements across time). Compared to children who exhibited typical trajectories of EF, the delayed group exhibited substantial impairments in multiple indicators of academic readiness in kindergarten (Cohen's ds = 0.9-2.7; odds ratios = 9.8-23.8). Although reduced in magnitude following control for a range of socioeconomic and cognitive (general intelligence screener, receptive vocabulary) covariates, moderate-sized group differences remained (Cohen's ds = 0.2-2.4; odds ratios = 3.9-5.4). Results are discussed with respect to the use of repeated measures of EF as a method of early identification, as well as the resulting translational implications of doing so.

Modern developmental science is informed by several shared principles and adopts a lifespan approach that goes from infancy to senescence. Increasingly, disciplines outside psychology are adopting research frameworks (e.g., fetal origins, developmental origins of health and disease, first 1000 days) that prioritize prenatal experience as a driver of children's long-term health and developmental outcomes. Despite originating in medical literatures, these new frameworks share many of the core tenets of modern developmental theories. However, they also raise new questions and provoke a broader consideration of developmental influences, outcomes, and contexts. In this article, we describe these frameworks and consider how they align with, differ from, and inform modern developmental science.

IntroductionInfants and young children may be at an increased risk for second- and thirdhand exposure to tobacco smoke because of increased respiration rate and exposure to surface residue. However, relatively fewer studies have examined biomarkers of exposure (cotinine) in children under age 4 years. This study examines the magnitude and chronicity of exposure across early childhood among children from low-income families in order to better characterize contextual risk factors associated with exposure.MethodsA total of 1292 families were recruited in six nonurban counties of Pennsylvania and North Carolina. Cotinine was assayed from infant saliva at 6, 15, 24, and 48 months of age (N = 1218), and categorized as low (≤0.45 ng/mL), moderate (0.46-12 ng/mL), or high (≥12 ng/mL) at each time point. Categories were highly correlated across time. Latent class analysis was used to summarize patterns of exposure categories across time.ResultsMagnitude of exposure in this sample was high, with approximately 12% of infants registering cotinine values at least 12 ng/mL, consistent with active smoking in adults. Greater exposure was associated with lower income, less education, more residential instability, and more instability in adult occupants in the home, whereas time spent in center-based day care was associated with lower exposure.ConclusionsYoung children from low-income, nonurban communities appear to bear a higher burden of secondhand smoke exposure than previous studies have reported. Results contribute to understanding populations at greater risk, as well as specific, potentially malleable, environmental factors that may be examined as direct contributors to exposure.ImplicationsResults suggest that infants from low-income, nonurban families have higher risk for environmental smoke exposure than data from nationally representative samples. Predictors of exposure offer insights into specific factors that may be targeted for risk reduction efforts, specifically conditions of children's physical space. In addition to considering the increases in risk when an adult smoker lives in a child's home, families should also attend to the possible risk embedded within the home itself, such as residual smoke from previous occupants. For high-risk children, day care appears to mitigate the magnitude of exposure by providing extended time in a smoke-free environment.

Despite widespread interest in the construct of executive functioning (EF), we currently lack definitive evidence regarding the best measurement model for representing the construct in substantive analyses. The most common practice is to represent EF ability as a reflective latent variable, with child performance on individual EF tasks as observed indicators. The current article critically evaluates the dominant use of reflective latent variable models in the child EF literature and compares them to composite models, a reasonable alternative. We review the literature suggesting that reflective latent variable models may not be the most appropriate representation of the construct of EF. Using preschool (M[subscript age]=48.3 months) and first grade (M[subscript age]=83.5 months) data from the Family Life Project (N=920), we also investigate the implications of measurement model specification for the interpretation of study findings. Children in this sample varied in terms of sex (49% male), race (43% black) and socioeconomic status (76% low-income). Our findings show that the conclusions we draw from 2 substantive analyses differ depending on whether EF is modeled as a reflective latent variable versus a composite variable. We describe the implications of these findings for research on child EF and offer practical recommendations for producers and consumers of developmental research.

This study tested whether individual executive function (EF) tasks were better characterized as formative or reflective indicators of the latent construct of EF. EF data that were collected as part of the Family Life Project (FLP), a prospective longitudinal study of families who were recruited at the birth of a new child (N = 1,292), when children were 3, 4, and 5 years old. Vanishing tetrad tests were used to test the relative fit of models in which EF tasks were used as either formative or reflective indicators of the latent construct of EF in the prediction of intellectual ability (at Age 3), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms (at Ages 3 to 5 years), and academic achievement (at kindergarten). Results consistently indicated that EF tasks were better represented as formative indicators of the latent construct of EF. Next, individual tasks were combined to form an overall measure of EF ability in ways generally consistent with formative (i.e., creating a composite mean score) and reflective (i.e., creating an EF factor score) measurement. The test-retest reliability and developmental trajectories of EF differed substantially, depending on which overall measure of EF ability was used. In general, the across-time stability of EF was markedly higher when represented as a factor score versus composite score. Results are discussed with respect to the ways in which the statistical representation of EF tasks can exert a large impact on inferences regarding the developmental causes, course, and consequences of EF. [This article was co-authored by The Family Life Project Investigators.]

A well-established literature demonstrates executive function (EF) deficits in obese children and adults relative to healthy weight comparisons. EF deficits in obesity are associated with overeating and impulsive consumption of high calorie foods leading to excess weight gain and to problems with metabolic regulation and low-grade inflammation that detrimentally affect the structure and function of prefrontal cortex. Here, we test a complementary explanation for the relation between EF and body mass index (BMI) grounded in the energy demand of the developing brain. Recent work shows that the brain accounts for a lifetime peak of 66% of resting metabolic rate in childhood and that developmental changes in brain energetics and normative changes in body weight gain are closely inversely related. This finding suggests a trade-off in early childhood between energy used to support brain development versus energy used to support physical growth and fat deposition. To test this theorized energetic trade-off, we analyzed data from a large longitudinal sample (N = 1,292) and found that change in EF from age 3 to 5 years, as a proxy for brain development in energetically costly prefrontal cortex, is inversely related to change in BMI from age 2 to 5 years. Greater linear decline in BMI predicted greater linear increase in EF. We interpret this finding as tentative support for a brain-body energetic trade-off in early childhood with implications for lifetime obesity risk.

Little research has considered whether prenatal experience contributes to executive function (EF) development above and beyond postnatal experience. This study tests direct, mediated, and moderated associations between prenatal risk factors and preschool EF and IQ in a longitudinal sample of 1,292 children from the Family Life Project. A composite of prenatal risk factors (i.e., low birth weight, prematurity, maternal emotional problems, maternal prepregnancy obesity, and obstetric complications) significantly predicted EF and IQ at age 3, above quality of the postnatal environment. This relationship was indirect, mediated through infant general cognitive abilities. Quality of the postnatal home and child-care environments did not moderate the cascade model. These findings highlight the role of prenatal experience as a contributor to individual differences in cognitive development.

The focus article (Willoughby et al., 2014) (1) introduced the distinction between formative and reflective measurement and (2) proposed that performance-based executive function tasks may be better conceptualized from the perspective of formative rather than reflective measurement. This proposal stands in sharp contrast to conventional measurement wisdom, in which confirmatory factor models are routinely used to represent individual differences in executive function ability. Here, I respond to the many thoughtful commentaries on my proposal. In addition, I draw on a philosophical distinction between formative and reflective latent variables that was made by Borsboom, Mellenbergh, and van Heerden (2003) to further challenge the current tendency to view executive function tasks from the perspective of reflective measurement.

Most of what is known about the association between children's executive function (EF) and school readiness skills is derived from research conducted in Western countries. We tested whether these associations were evident in a middle-income country context. Participants were 1,480 children, aged 4-7 years old, who participated in an endline assessment of the Tayari program, an early childhood education (ECE) model that is being delivered by the Kenyan education system. High rates of task completion, low rates of floor effects, and high rates of assessor quality ratings supported the feasibility of large-scale direct assessments of EF with young children. Assessor ratings of children's attention-related behaviors during testing were positively associated with their performance on EF tasks (rs = 0.12-0.27). An EF composite score was not related to demographic factors or to children's exposure to the Tayari program. However, the EF composite score was uniquely associated with performance-based measures of early literacy ([beta] = 0.18, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.05, 0.31), early numeracy ([beta] = 0.16, 95% CI = 0.07, 26), and social-emotional competencies ([beta] = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.03, 0.20), even after adjustment for multiple covariates. These results are discussed with respect to the ways in which EF skills inform ongoing efforts to invest in ECE in low- and middle-income countries.

Children with higher levels of executive function (EF) skills consistently demonstrate higher levels of academic achievement. Despite the consistency of these associations, fundamental questions remain about whether efforts to improve an individual child's EF skills result in corresponding improvements in his or her academic performance. In the absence of experimental evidence, developmentalists have used repeated measures designs to test the nature, magnitude, and direction of the associations between EF skills and academic achievement. In contrast to previous studies, this study described how between- and within-person associations between EF and achievement address different questions. Using data from a subsample of participants (N = 6,040) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study--Kindergarten, 2010-2011 (ECLS-K:2011) cohort, we estimated a series of latent growth curve models with structured residuals to test the between and within-person associations between 2 dimensions of EF (working memory, cognitive flexibility) and 2 domains of academic achievement (math, reading). Whereas between-person associations between EF and achievement were large (f = 0.55-0.91), the within-person associations were small (ßs = -0.10-0.25). Within-person effects of earlier reading achievement on later EF skills was the most consistent finding. Results were unchanged when analyses were repeated using the subset of children who were eligible for free and reduced-price lunch, a proxy for low socioeconomic households. Results are discussed with respect to interest in improving EF skills as a means for facilitating school outcomes.

There is great interest in the development of executive function (EF) in the preschool period. Accordingly, multiple performance-based measures of EF have been developed for this age group, yet little is known about how they compare to one another. This study used a large and diverse sample of 3-to-5-year-old children (N = 846), who completed subtests of the National Institutes of Health's Toolbox Cognition Battery (NTCB), the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-IV), and the EF Touch battery. Scores across the three batteries were compared and associations with age, income, and race/ethnicity were examined. Results revealed that (1) the three tasks were moderately correlated (r = 0.44–0.51, all p < 0.001), but children had higher mean accuracy scores on EF Touch than on the NTCB or the WPPSI-IV. (2) Mean accuracy scores on all batteries were linearly associated with child age (all F > 32.68, all p < 0.0001). (3) Comparisons by income and race/ethnicity showed lower accuracy for low-income children on the WPPSI-IV and lower accuracy for White children on the NTCB. Across all batteries, there was consistently lower accuracy for Hispanic children. In conclusion, the three batteries we examined performed similarly across several metrics. EF Touch may be more appropriate for younger children, while the NTCB performed well with older children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early childhood is characterized by rapid increases in both motor skills and executive function skills. Rather than simply codeveloping, the development of motor and executive function skills may be linked causally. In this article, we introduce corticomuscular coherence as a paradigm for psychologists interested in testing mechanistic questions about the potentially causal association between motor and executive function skill development in early childhood. We also consider the broader implications of this work for informing typical and atypical development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundApproximately one third of children who meet criteria for conduct problems (CP) are also characterized by elevated callous-unemotional (CU) traits. This subgroup is at elevated risk for more pervasive and extreme levels of later antisocial behavior and has been characterized by a fearlessness temperament and blunted stress psychophysiology at older ages. The objective of this study was to examine group differences in fear reactivity and stress psychophysiology in infancy among children classified as having CP with CU (CP + CU), CP without CU (CP only), or no CP in later childhood.MethodsA birth cohort study (n = 1,292) was followed longitudinally from birth through first grade. Behavioral fear, baseline heart period (HP) and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), and pretask, 20-min posttask, and 40-min posttask salivary cortisol were assessed at 6 and 15 months of age around a fear challenge task. CP and CU were assessed by maternal report at first grade and children were classified into CP and CU groups if they scored in the upper 10(th) percentile of these ratings.ResultsNo group differences were observed in children at 6 months of age. However, at 15 months of age children with later CP + CU displayed greater high-intensity fear behavior, higher pretask and overall cortisol levels, and lower levels of HP and RSA compared to children with CP only and children with no CP.ConclusionsThe discrepancy between the biobehavioral correlates of conduct problems with callous-unemotional traits in infancy and those reported from studies of older children and adults suggests that the etiology of this behavioral phenotype may be more complex than a simple genetic maturation model.

This study examined the independent and mediated associations between maternal depression symptoms (MDS), mother-child interaction, and child executive function (EF) in a prospective longitudinal sample of 1,037 children (50% boys) from predominantly low-income and rural communities. When children were 6, 15 and 24 months of age, mothers reported their level of depressive symptomatology. At 24 and 36 months of age, mother-child interactions during play were rated for warmth-sensitivity and harsh-intrusiveness, and dyadic joint attention and maternal language complexity were assessed from a book sharing activity. Children's EF (i.e., inhibitory control, working memory, and set shifting) were assessed at ages 36 and 48 months using a battery of six tasks. Results indicated that MDS at ages 15 and 24 months were negatively associated with children's EF at age 48 months. Additionally, harsh-intrusive mother-child interactions partially mediated this link. Although warmth-sensitivity, dyadic joint attention and maternal language complexity were all longitudinally related to EF, they did not serve as mediating mechanisms between MDS and EF. These results were obtained while controlling for multiple demographic factors, children's earlier cognitive abilities, maternal general distress and childcare experiences. Findings from this study identify 1 mechanism through which early exposure to MDS could be related to children's EF.

Performance-based assessments of EF for use with young children who have or are at risk for disabilities are lacking. The current study investigates the use of a computerized battery for children with subclinical behaviors (N = 846) across a variety of developmental disabilities and evaluates practical information about feasibility of task administration. Results reveal that children with disabilities performed similarly to their typically developing peers across a variety of metrics for evaluating the battery, ranging from percent correct scores to administrator quality ratings. Thus, the battery may be considered an easy-to-administer, performance-based assessment tool in which children with disabilities do not perform systemically worse than typically developing peers.

Mental health research demonstrates that children with conduct problems (CP) and callous-unemotional (CU) traits differ in important ways from children with CP alone, including differences in primary caregiver attachment quality. This research suggests CU may also influence the quality of attachment between children with CP and their teachers. This study compared children with CP alone (CP), CU alone (CU), both CP and CU (CPCU), and neither CP nor CU (comparison) on measures of the student--teacher relationship (STR). Participants were 1,554 students from seven elementary schools. Teachers completed ratings of STR, behavior (CP, CU, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]), and impairment approximately 4 to 6 weeks after the start of the school year, and again 4 to 6 weeks before the school year's end. Random intercept hierarchical linear models (HLMs) showed that (a) children with CPCU had the highest conflict and lowest closeness with teachers at the start of the school year and the greatest end-of-Stuyear impairment, (b) higher conflict and lower closeness with teachers at the school year's start were associated with greater end-of-the-year impairment, (c) there was no interaction between group (CP, CU, CPCU, or comparison) and STR in predicting end-of-the-year outcomes, and (d) ADHD was robustly associated with end-of-the-year impairment.