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PURPOSE: Timely receipt of mammograms to screen for breast cancer in accordance with the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommendations can substantially reduce morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this study is to assess whether odds of receiving screening mammograms are similar for women with and without visual impairment. DESIGN: Retrospective longitudinal cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: 1044 females, 65–72 years of age, enrolled in fee-for-service Medicare from January 1, 2008 to December 31, 2015. METHODS: We matched patients with no vision loss (NVL), partial vision loss (PVL), and severe vision loss (SVL) 1:1:1 based on age, race, time in Medicare, urbanicity of residence, and overall health. Women with pre-existing breast cancer were excluded. Multivariable conditional logistic regression modeling compared the odds of receiving screening mammography within a 2-year follow-up period among the 3 groups. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: Proportion receiving mammography and adjusted odds ratios (OR) of receiving mammography within 2 years of follow-up among the groups. RESULTS: A total of 1044 patients were matched (348 in each group). The mean ± SD age at the index date was 69.0 ± 1.5 years for all 3 groups. The proportion of women receiving ≥ 1 mammogram within the 2-year follow-up period was 69.0% (n=240), 56.9% (n=198), and 56.0% (n=195) for the NVL, PVL and SVL groups, respectively (p=0.0005). The mean ± SD number of mammograms received per patient during the 5-year period (3-year look-back plus 2-year follow-up period) was 3.1 ± 2.0, 2.5 ± 2.0, and 2.3 ± 2.1 for the NVL, PVL and SVL groups, respectively (p

Adherence to medication treatment protocols and active participation by individuals in their medical care are important for all patients, but especially for those with chronic conditions such as vision loss. Adherence is crucial for decreasing avoidable vision loss. Failure to take medications as prescribed and keep scheduled appointments reduces treatment effectiveness, increases complications and results in poorer outcomes. Reasons for nonadherence vary by diagnosis and include not understanding the importance of adherence, low health literacy, lack of adequate self-efficacy, low level of activation and behavioral issues including depression. Patients may lack information about their condition and its prognosis, available treatment alternatives, and other essential information such as how to monitor their eye condition, what to do if vision deteriorates and how to get needed community-based help. Each of these factors impedes patients' ability to engage with their physician and participate in their own care. The ability of individuals with vision loss to actively and effectively manage their health care, ie, activation, has been understudied. When patients are involved with their own care, their care experience, and most importantly, their outcomes, are improved. Identifying antecedents of adherence may help provide disease- and patient-specific pathways to reduce avoidable vision loss.

This paper describes the interface and testing of an indoor navigation app - ASSIST - that guides blind & visually impaired (BVI) individuals through an indoor environment with high accuracy while augmenting their understanding of the surrounding environment. ASSIST features personalized interfaces by considering the unique experiences that BVI individuals have in indoor wayfinding and offers multiple levels of multimodal feedback. After an overview of the technical approach and implementation of the first prototype of the ASSIST system, the results of two pilot studies performed with BVI individuals are presented – a performance study to collect data on mobility (walking speed, collisions, and navigation errors) while using the app, and a usability study to collect user evaluation data on the perceived helpfulness, safety, ease-of-use, and overall experience while using the app. Our studies show that ASSIST is useful in providing users with navigational guidance, improving their efficiency and (more significantly) their safety and accuracy in wayfinding indoors. Findings and user feed-back from the studies confirm some of the previous results, while also providing some new insights into the creation of such an app, including the use of customized user interfaces and expanding the types of information provided.

Advanced wearable devices are increasingly incorporating high-resolution multi-camera systems. As state-of-the-art neural networks for processing the resulting image data are computationally demanding, there has been growing interest in leveraging fifth generation (5G) wireless connectivity and mobile edge computing for offloading this processing to the cloud. To assess this possibility, this paper presents a detailed simulation and evaluation of 5G wireless offloading for object detection within a powerful, new smart wearable called VIS4ION, for the Blind-and-Visually Impaired (BVI). The current VIS4ION system is an instrumented book-bag with high-resolution cameras, vision processing and haptic and audio feedback. The paper considers uploading the camera data to a mobile edge cloud to perform real-time object detection and transmitting the detection results back to the wearable. To determine the video requirements, the paper evaluates the impact of video bit rate and resolution on object detection accuracy and range. A new street scene dataset with labeled objects relevant to BVI navigation is leveraged for analysis. The vision evaluation is combined with a detailed full-stack wireless network simulation to determine the distribution of throughputs and delays with real navigation paths and ray-tracing from new high-resolution 3D models in an urban environment. For comparison, the wireless simulation considers both a standard 4G-Long Term Evolution (LTE) carrier and high-rate 5G millimeter-wave (mmWave) carrier. The work thus provides a thorough and realistic assessment of edge computing with mmWave connectivity in an application with both high bandwidth and low latency requirements., Published in: IEEE Access ( Volume: 10)

SIGNIFICANCE This research is significant because, although vision-related quality of life (VRQoL) is improved after vision rehabilitation (VR), patients with certain characteristics respond less positively on VRQoL measures, and this should inform future care. PURPOSE The purposes of this study were to evaluate how two VRQoL questionnaires compare in measuring change in patient-reported outcomes after VR and to determine if patient characteristics or occupational therapy (OT) predict higher scores after rehabilitation. METHODS In a prospective clinical cohort study, 109 patients with low vision completed the Impact of Vision Impairment (IVI) and the National Eye Institute Visual Functioning Questionnaire (NEI VFQ-25) before and after VR. Comprehensive VR included consultation with an ophthalmologist and OT if required. The relationships of six baseline characteristics (age, sex, visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, field loss, diagnosis) and OT were assessed with VRQoL scores using multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS The mean (SD) age was 68.5 (19.2) years, and 61 (56%) were female. After rehabilitation, increases in scores were observed in all IVI subscales (reading [P < .001], mobility [P = .002], well-being [P = .0003]) and all NEI VFQ-25 subscales (functional [P = .01], socioemotional [P = .003]). Those who were referred to OT but did not attend and those who had hemianopia/field loss were less likely to have higher VRQoL in IVI mobility and well-being. Those attending OT for more than 3 hours were less likely to have better scores in emotional NEI VFQ. Men were less likely to have increased scores in functional and emotional NEI VFQ, whereas those with diagnoses of nonmacular diseases had higher odds of having increased scores on the emotional NEI VFQ (all, P < .05). CONCLUSION Both the IVI and the NEI VFQ-25 detected change in patients' VRQoL after rehabilitation. Most of the patient characteristics we considered predicted a lower likelihood of increased scores in VRQoL.

In 2010, the World Health Organisation (WHO) reported 733 million people with visual impairment (VI) world-wide and predicted an increase to 929 million by 2020 [1]. Their updated report from late ...

Vision loss and blindness are significant causes of disability. Patient activation has been previously unstudied in individuals with vision loss. Among our 146 participants, visual acuities for 38.3 percent were better than 20/70, 43.2 percent had acuities between 20/70 and 20/400, and 12.3 percent had acuities of

There is an immediate need for noninvasive therapies to improve the functional abilities of persons blinded by traumatic injury. The BrainPort Vision Pro, an updated hands-free oral electronic vision device, enables perception of visual information using the tongue as a substitute for the eye. Purpose The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of the BrainPort Vision Pro on real-world functional task performance in persons who are profoundly blind (light perception or worse) due to traumatic injury (ocular or cortical). Methods This was a prospective, within-subjects, repeated-measures study. Participants received ten hours of device training and were required to use the device independently for 1 year. Functional performance measures of object identification, orientation and mobility, word identification, and environmental awareness were assessed at baseline, post-device training, and quarterly throughout the year. Results Seventeen profoundly blind adults were enrolled in the study. No clinically significant device-related adverse events were reported, demonstrating minimal risks associated with the BrainPort Vision Pro. None of the participants could successfully perform any of the functional tasks at baseline, without the device. After 1 year of independent device use, all participants could identify objects, and 41% identified words beyond chance level while using the device. Forty-one percent of participants could locate a sign, 94% followed a line without veering off, 71% avoided obstacles, 71% walked through a doorway without collision, 100% of participants recognized a door, and 71% identified a window. Conclusions Results demonstrate significant improvements in real-world functional task performance in skill areas important to everyday life. The BrainPort Vision Pro offers a nonsurgical method for improving visual function in persons blinded by trauma. The device can enhance independence and support the successful integration of profoundly blind persons, including veterans and returning service members, into community life.

Purpose To examine whether individuals with Stargardt disease macular dystrophy (STGD) change the location of fixation with instruction. Design Case-control study. Participants Thirteen normally sighted and 37 STGD participants. Methods Using an Optos scanning laser ophthalmoscopy/OCT microperimeter (Optos plc, Dunfermline, UK), fixation was measured under 2 different instructions: “look at the cross” (LC) and “look straight ahead, even if you do not see the cross” (LS). Visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, disease duration, and age at disease onset were obtained from medical records. Main Outcome Measure Change in fixation with instruction. Results Mean age of the STGD participants was 39.2 years, and 24 were women. Mean acuity was 1.01±0.29 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (logMAR), and mean contrast sensitivity was 1.16±0.41 log. The largest number of fixations under the LC condition were in the superior retina. Patients with STGD were divided into 3 groups, depending on the change in fixation locus when asked to look straight ahead: those having fixation closer the fovea, those with no change in the location of fixation, and those looking farther away from the fovea. Fifty-one eyes of 32 participants had fixations closer to the fovea when asked to look straight ahead (average change, –6.3°), whereas 13 eyes of 11 participants did not change fixation. There were no significant differences between groups in age, visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, bivariate contour ellipse area, and age at disease onset. Conclusions Despite having eccentric fixation, most STGD participants did not have a complete directional re-referencing from the fovea to the eccentric location, and moved fixation when asked to look straight ahead. This finding emphasizes that reliable assessment of visual function during evaluations of disease progression or in therapeutic intervention trials requires consistent instructions and monitoring of fixation. Otherwise, a patient's interpretation of fixation instruction may confound the results.

During pandemics like COVID-19, social distancing is essential to combat the rise of infections. However, it is challenging for the visually impaired to practice social distancing as their low vision hinders them from maintaining a safe physical distance from other humans. In this paper, we propose a smartphone-based computationally-efficient deep neural network to detect crowds and relay the associated risks to the Blind or Visually Impaired (BVI) user through directional audio alerts. The system first detects humans and estimates their distances from the smartphone’s monocular camera feed. Then, the system clusters humans into crowds to generate density and distance maps from the crowd centers. Finally, the system tracks detections in previous frames creating motion maps predicting the motion of crowds to generate an appropriate audio alert. Active Crowd Analysis is designed for real-time smartphone use, utilizing the phone’s native hardware to ensure the BVI can safely maintain social distancing.

Introduction This study was conducted to evaluate the functional performance of the BrainPort V100 device, an FDA-cleared sensory-substitution system, in persons who are profoundly blind (that is, have some or no light perception). Methods This was a prospective, single-arm, multicenter clinical investigation. Participants received 10 hours of device training and were required to use the device in their everyday environments for 1 year. Functional performance measures of object identification, orientation and mobility (O&M), and word identification were assessed at baseline, in post-device training, and at the 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-month time points. Results Fifty-seven participants completed the study and used the device for 1 year. No device-related serious adverse events were reported, demonstrating that the risks associated with the BrainPort are minimal. Participants performed object recognition (91.2% success rate) and O&M (57.9% success rate) tasks beyond chance level. Discussion This study demonstrates that the BrainPort can be used safely and independently by persons who are blind. Participants with profound blindness can accomplish a set of tasks more successfully by using the BrainPort than without the device. Following initial training, performance on these tasks was maintained or improved over the course of 1 year. Implications for practitioners The BrainPort is a noninvasive and nonsurgical device that heightens functional independence for persons who are blind. The device presents users with more information about their environment than conventional assistive devices, and can enhance independence in performing activities of daily living.

Blind & visually impaired (BVI) individuals and those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) each face unique challenges in navigating unfamiliar indoor environments. In this paper, we propose an indoor positioning and navigation system that guides a user from point A to point B indoors with high accuracy while augmenting their situational awareness. This system has three major components: location recognition (a hybrid indoor localization app that uses Bluetooth Low Energy beacons and Google Tango to provide high accuracy), object recognition (a body-mounted camera to provide the user momentary situational awareness of objects and people), and semantic recognition (map-based annotations to alert the user of static environmental characteristics). This system also features personalized interfaces built upon the unique experiences that both BVI and ASD individuals have in indoor wayfinding and tailors its multimodal feedback to their needs. Here, the technical approach and implementation of this system are discussed, and the results of human subject tests with both BVI and ASD individuals are presented. In addition, we discuss and show the system’s user-centric interface and present points for future work and expansion.

Significance Systematic lighting assessments should be part of low vision evaluations. The LuxIQ has gained popularity as an assessment tool, but its reliability has not been examined independently and is necessary for evidence-based vision rehabilitation. Purpose Besides magnification, improved lighting levels are a common intervention in reading rehabilitation for individuals with low vision. Determining the appropriate lighting can be a complex and time-consuming task. The LuxIQ is a portable lighting assessment tool that can be used to systematically measure lighting preferences; however, there is little independent evidence to support its reliability in low vision rehabilitation. Methods One hundred nine control subjects (age, 18 to 85 years) and 64 individuals with low vision (age, 27 to 99 years) adjusted both the luminance and color temperature parameters on the LuxIQ while viewing a sentence on the MNREAD at their preferred print size for continuous reading. After 30 minutes, they were asked to repeat the same measurements. Results Using Bland-Altman plots, test-retest variability was calculated using the limits of agreement (LOAs). For illuminance, the LOA width was 2806 lux for control subjects and 2657 lux for visually impaired participants. For color temperature, the LOA width was 2807 K for control subjects and 2364 K for those with a visual impairment. Difference scores were centered near zero, indicating overall accuracy. Conclusions The measurement of lighting preference lacks the precision necessary for clinical utility, given that the LOA for luminance ranged more than 2600 lux, with normally sighted and low vision participants. Such variability translates into a range of approximately ±40 or 50 W in an incandescent light bulb, depending on the luminance level, making it clinically difficult to narrow down the options for evidence-based lighting recommendations. Next steps are to examine whether the reading behavior of low vision clients is positively affected by interventions that are based on LuxIQ recommendations.

OBJECTIVE. We sought to determine under what conditions brighter lighting improves reading performance. METHOD. Thirteen participants with typical sight and 9 participants with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) read sentences ranging from 0.0 to 1.3 logMAR under luminance levels ranging from 3.5 to 696 cd/m2. RESULTS. At the dimmest luminance level (3.5 cd/m2), reading speeds were slowest at the smaller letter sizes and reached an asymptote for larger sizes. When luminance was increased to 30 cd/m2, reading speed increased only for the smaller letter sizes. Additional lighting did not increase reading speeds for any letter size. Similar size-related effects of luminance were observed in participants with AMD. CONCLUSION. In some instances, performance on acuity-limited tasks might be improved by brighter lighting. However, brighter lighting does not always improve reading; the magnitude of the effect depends on the text size and the relative changes in light level.

IMPORTANCE: Patients with vision loss who are hospitalized for common illnesses are often not identified as requiring special attention. This perception, however, may affect the outcomes, resource use, and costs for these individuals. OBJECTIVE: To assess whether the mean hospitalization lengths of stay, readmission rates, and costs of hospitalization differed between individuals with vision loss and those without when they are hospitalized for similar medical conditions. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This analysis of health care claims data used 2 sources: Medicare database and Clinformatics DataMart. Individuals with vision loss were matched 1:1 to those with no vision loss (NVL), on the basis of age, years from initial hospitalization, sex, race/ethnicity, urbanicity of residence, and overall health. Both groups had the same health insurance (Medicare or a commercial health plan), and all had been hospitalized for common illnesses. Vision loss was categorized as either partial vision loss (PVL) or severe vision loss (SVL). Data were analyzed from April 2015 through April 2018. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The outcomes were lengths of stay, readmission rates, and health care costs during hospitalization and 90 days after discharge. Multivariable logistic and linear regression models were built to identify factors associated with these outcomes among the NVL, PVL, and SVL groups. RESULTS: Among Medicare beneficiaries, 6165 individuals with NVL (with a mean [SD] age of 82.0 [8.3] years, and 3833 [62.2%] of whom were female) were matched to 6165 with vision loss. Of those with vision loss, 3401 (55.2%) had PVL and 2764 (44.8%) had SVL. In the Clinformatics DataMart database, 5929 individuals with NVL (with a mean [SD] age of 73.7 [15.1] years, and 3587 [60.5%] of whom were female) were matched to 5929 individuals with vision loss. Of the commercially insured enrollees with vision loss, 3515 (59.3%) had PVL and 2414 (40.7%) had SVL. Medicare enrollees with SVL, compared with those with NVL, had longer mean lengths of stay (6.48 vs 5.26 days), higher readmission rates (23.1% vs 18.7%), and higher hospitalization and 90-day postdischarge costs ($64 711 vs $61 060). Compared with those with NVL, Medicare beneficiaries with SVL had 4% longer length of stay (estimated ratio, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.01-1.07; P = .02), 22% higher odds of readmission (odds ratio, 1.22; 95% CI, 1.06-1.41; P = .007), and 12% higher costs (estimated cost ratio, 1.12; 95% CI, 1.06-1.18; P

Purpose It has been reported that patients with macular disease have difficulties with face perception. Some of this difficulty may be caused by the sensory and perceptual consequences of using peripheral retina. However, strong correlations have not always been found between performance on face tasks and clinical measure of function. Based on the evidence of abnormal eye movements by patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD), we explored whether abnormal fixation patterns occur when these patients view an image of a face. Methods An OPKO OCT/SLO was used to collect structural and functional data. For each subject, the structural location of disease was determined, and the locus and stability of fixation were quantified. A SLO movie of fundus movements was recorded while the subject viewed an image of a face. Results The number of fixations on internal (eyes, nose, and mouth) and external features were measured. A two-way repeated-measures analysis of variance found significant differences between the control and patient groups and among locations. A significant interaction between group and location was also found. Post hoc comparisons found a significantly greater proportion of fixations on external features for the AMD group than that in the control group. Conclusions The observed patterns of fixations of our subjects with AMD were similar to those observed in other groups of patients who have difficulties with face perception. For example, individuals with social phobias, Williams syndrome, autism, schizophrenia, or prosopagnosia have altered face perceptions and also have a significantly greater proportion of fixations on external features of faces. Abnormal eye movement patterns and fixations may contribute to deficits in face perception in AMD patients.

To examine whether individuals with Stargardt disease macular dystrophy (STGD) change the location of fixation with instruction.Case-control study.Thirteen normally sighted and 37 STGD participants.Using an Optos scanning laser ophthalmoscopy/OCT microperimeter (Optos plc, Dunfermline, UK), fixation was measured under 2 different instructions: "look at the cross" (LC) and "look straight ahead, even if you do not see the cross" (LS). Visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, disease duration, and age at disease onset were obtained from medical records.Change in fixation with instruction.Mean age of the STGD participants was 39.2 years, and 24 were women. Mean acuity was 1.01±0.29 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (logMAR), and mean contrast sensitivity was 1.16±0.41 log. The largest number of fixations under the LC condition were in the superior retina. Patients with STGD were divided into 3 groups, depending on the change in fixation locus when asked to look straight ahead: those having fixation closer the fovea, those with no change in the location of fixation, and those looking farther away from the fovea. Fifty-one eyes of 32 participants had fixations closer to the fovea when asked to look straight ahead (average change, -6.3°), whereas 13 eyes of 11 participants did not change fixation. There were no significant differences between groups in age, visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, bivariate contour ellipse area, and age at disease onset.Despite having eccentric fixation, most STGD participants did not have a complete directional re-referencing from the fovea to the eccentric location, and moved fixation when asked to look straight ahead. This finding emphasizes that reliable assessment of visual function during evaluations of disease progression or in therapeutic intervention trials requires consistent instructions and monitoring of fixation. Otherwise, a patient's interpretation of fixation instruction may confound the results.

To investigate a relationship between the inner segment-outer segment (IS-OS) junctional layer integrity and the overlying retinal sensitivity assessed by Spectral OCT/SLO (spectral-domain optical coherence tomography) and microperimetry testing in patients with dry and wet forms of age-related macular degeneration (AMD).Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography examination and microperimetry testing were performed in 55 eyes of 43 consecutive patients with AMD. Microperimetry maps were registered onto three-dimensional retinal topography maps, and point-to-point analysis of correlation between microperimetric retinal sensitivities and corresponding status of the underlying IS-OS junctional layer was performed. In addition, the analysis of correlation between the best-corrected visual acuity and the integrity of IS-OS layer in the center of the fovea also was performed.Retinal sensitivity was inversely and strongly correlated with the integrity of IS-OS layer in both dry and wet forms of AMD (correlation coefficient [r] = -0.75 [95% confidence interval, 0.49-0.88], P0.001, and -0.79 [95% confidence interval, 0.61-0.89], P0.001, respectively). The correlation between the best-corrected visual acuity and the integrity of IS-OS layer in the center of fovea was less significant (r = -0.58 [95% confidence interval, 0.19-0.79], P = 0.02, for dry AMD, and r = -0.6 [95% confidence interval, 0.32-0.78], P = 0.015, for wet AMD).Retinal sensitivity consistently correlated with the status of underlying IS-OS junctional layer in both dry and wet forms of AMD. Loss of IS-OS layer is significantly associated with poor retinal sensitivity, assessed by microperimetry. Compared with visual acuity, functional testing with microperimetry appears to more consistently correlate with changes in the outer retina, such as IS-OS junctional integrity, especially, in patients with wet AMD.

Aims: To investigate the combination of 3D optical coherence tomography (OCT) retinal thickness measurements and superimposed scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) microperimetry obtained using a Spectral OCT/SLO and to test the correlation between retinal thickness and retinal sensitivity in retinal diseases grouped according to anatomic locations. Methods: Patients with various retinal diseases and subjects with normal fundi underwent microperimetry testing and imaging with the Spectral OCT/SLO. Based on the Spectral OCT/SLO findings, the participants were divided into 4 groups: patients with retinal thickening due to the outer retina pathology (group I); patients with retinal thickening due to the cystic changes observed in the inner retina (group II); patients with macular neurosensory retina thinning associated with geographic atrophy or underlying subretinal cicatricial changes (group III), and subjects with unremarkable fundus appearance and normal appearing retina on Spectral OCT/SLO (group IV). The primary outcome was the correlation coefficient (r) between Spectral OCT/SLO-measured macular thickness and microperimetry values. Results: Correlations between retinal thickness and psychophysical thresholds were calculated for each patient, and these values were averaged within groups. The mean correlation values (Pearson product movement) were as follows: for group I (n = 21 eyes) r = 0.04; for group II (n = 24 eyes) r = –0.53; for group III (n = 16 eyes) r = 0.41, and for group IV (n = 15 eyes) r = 0.04. Conclusions: The combination of 3D OCT images and superimposed SLO microperimetry obtained by Spectral OCT/SLO demonstrated that thickening due to cystic changes of the inner retinal layers or thinning of the neurosensory retina on OCT correlated most significantly with decreases in psychophysical threshold sensitivities.

The aim was to correlate retinal sensitivity as determined by scanning laser ophthalmoscope microperimetry (SLO-MP) in glaucomatous eyes with paracentral visual field (VF) defects detected by standard automated perimetry (SAP).Twenty eyes with glaucomatous optic neuropathy and an SAP VF defect involving the central 16 test points (at least one point with p1% in the 24-2 VF) were enrolled. Eyes with diseases other than glaucoma were excluded. All patients underwent SLO-MP and SAP of the central 10 degrees . Results from each eye were divided into four quadrants for analysis. Normal and abnormal quadrants by SAP were compared with the corresponding normal and abnormal quadrants by SLO-MP. Regression analysis was used to correlate the mean threshold values (dB) of SLO-MP and SAP in each quadrant. Macular optical coherence tomography (OCT) was performed when there was a disagreement between functional tests.The mean age and VF mean deviation were 60.8 (13.4) years and -7.3 (6.1) dB, respectively. There was a significant correlation between SLO-MP and SAP results in all quadrants (r(2)or =0.68, p0.001). All abnormal SAP quadrants had a corresponding abnormal SLO-MP quadrant. However, 21% of the normal SAP quadrants had an abnormal corresponding microperimetry result; a corresponding significant reduction in total macular thickness measured by OCT was present in 75% of these quadrants.Macular sensitivity evaluated by SLO-MP correlates significantly with SAP paracentral VF defects. SLO-MP detected retinal sensitivity reduction in areas of OCT structural damage with normal SAP and suggests that subtle paracentral functional deficits may be present in many more eyes with established glaucoma than generally assumed.

Patients with macular disease and central visual loss affecting the fovea often adopt an eccentric preferred retinal location (PRL). The existence of eccentric PRLs has been known for many years1; however, their characteristics are still not fully understood. Studies have shown that their location can change as a function of the type of macular disease, the luminance level, and the functional task.2-6 Information as to their location and stability is not only useful for the clinician in planning future treatment of patients with macular disease but also is essential for the correct interpretation of measures of local function such as visual field sensitivity and focal or multifocal electroretinography. The information may also prove to be an indicator of disease progression. Recently a microperimeter, the Nidek microperimeter (MP-1) (Nidek Technologies Inc., Padova, Italy) has been developed that may be a useful clinical tool for assessing the location and stability of fixation while simultaneously measuring visual field sensitivity. The MP-1 combines fundus tracking microperimetry with color fundus photography. The examiner selects a landmark with high reflectivity on the fundus and stimuli are projected onto the retina in relation to this landmark using an LCD. An automatic eye tracker compensates for eye movements. A color fundus photograph is taken at the end of the examination and a registration technique is used to overlay the perimetric and fixation results on the fundus photograph. This allows visual function to be compared to retinal morphology. The technique has the potential to improve our understanding of PRLs and of visual sensitivity of the surrounding areas of patients with macular disease. In this study the MP-1 and conventional fundus photography were used to investigate the location and fixation stability of PRLs in a group of patients with retinal disease affecting the macula. The visual sensitivity of the surrounding retinal region was measured with static perimetry and the relationship of the PRL to fundus abnormalities examined by overlaying the perimetric and fixation results onto the fundus photograph and onto the fundus autofluorescence (FAF) images. Finally the effect of an eccentric PRL on the interpretation of the results of functional tests such as the multifocal electroretinogram is discussed.

To examine if vision in subjects with macular heterotopia (MH) secondary to retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is related to anatomical macular structure.Six subjects with MH who were between 18 years and 65 years of age and three age-matched subjects with normal vision were recruited for the study. Vision and macular structure of the better eye of the subjects with MH and the dominant eye of age-matched subjects with normal vision were assessed. High contrast visual acuity and contrast sensitivity were measured using Early Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy Study and Pelli-Robson charts, respectively. The Micro Perimeter (Nidek Technologies MP-1) was used to assess macular sensitivity and fixation stability. Using optical coherence tomography, macular thickness and relative retinal thickness at fixation were measured.Subjects with MH had significantly reduced visual acuity and macular sensitivity compared with age-matched subjects with normal vision. In comparison with their age-matched counterparts, subjects with MH had significantly increased macular thickness and increased relative retinal thickness at fixation. A normal foveal architecture was absent in three subjects with MH (50%).Patients with MH secondary to ROP have increased macular thickness and reduced vision.

To determine whether retinal dysfunction in obligate carriers of the Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) could be observed in local electroretinographic responses obtained with the multifocal electroretinogram (mfERG).Six obligate carriers of the BBS were examined for the study. Examination of each carrier included an ocular examination and mfERG testing of one eye. For the mfERG, we used a 103-scaled hexagonal stimulus array that subtended a retinal area of approximately 40 degrees in diameter. The amplitudes and implicit times in each location for the mfERG were compared with the corresponding values determined for a group of 34 normally sighted, age-similar control subjects.Mapping of 103 local electroretinographic response amplitudes within a central 40 degrees area with the mfERG showed regions of reduced mfERG amplitudes in three of six carriers. Implicit time measurements in the 6 carriers were all normal except for those locations associated with abnormal amplitude reductions in 3 of the carriers. When present, retinal dysfunction was evident in the presence of a normal-appearing fundus.Multifocal ERG testing can demonstrate areas of retinal dysfunction in carriers of the BBS. This test may therefore be useful for identifying some heterozygous carriers of this disease.

The World Health Organization estimates that 285 million people are visually impaired worldwide: 39 million are blind and 246 million have low vision. In order to improve the overall situation without having the user feel encumbered, our Crowd Assisted Navigation app is designed for smartphones (including both iPhones and Android phones), which are by far the most commonly used mobile devices among those with low vision. Many individuals would rather forget their wallets at home than their phones. A smartphone is easily accessible and its use does not attract undue attention towards the user's need of aid for his/her disability. The app's primary objective is to assist a visually impaired or blind user in navigating from point A to point B through reliable directions given from an online community. The phone is able to stream live video to a crowd of sighted users through our website. The crowd is then able to give directions from the website with the push of one of the four arrow keys, indicating either left, right, forward, or stop. The aggregation of these directions will be relayed back to the user by audio.

Purpose To determine whether retinal dysfunction in obligate carriers of X-linked retinoschisis (XLRS) could be observed in local electroretinographic responses obtained with the multifocal electroretinogram (mfERG). Methods Nine obligate carriers of XLRS (mean age, 46.2 years) were examined for the study. Examination of each carrier included an ocular examination and mfERG testing. For the mfERG, we used a 103-scaled hexagonal stimulus array that subtended a retinal area of approximately 40° in diameter. The amplitudes and implicit times in each location for the mfERG were compared with the corresponding values determined for a group of 34 normally-sighted, age-similar control subjects. Results Mapping of 103 local electroretinographic response amplitudes and implicit times within a central 40° area with the mfERG showed regions of reduced mfERG amplitudes and delayed implicit times in two of nine carriers. Conclusions The mfERG demonstrated areas of retinal dysfunction in two carriers of XLRS. When present, retinal dysfunction was evident in the presence of a normal-appearing fundus. Multifocal ERG testing can be useful for identifying some carriers of XLRS.

Previous studies indicated abnormal development of fixation toward the optic nerve head in patients with the inherited retinal disease North Carolina macular dystrophy (NCMD). The implication of this development on functional vision and structural characteristics has not been described.The anatomical characteristics of five NCMD-affected individuals were assessed by measuring the retinal thickness of the macula using optical coherence tomography. The underlying physiologic health of the retina was assessed using the multifocal ERG. Psychophysical assessment of remaining vision in the affected areas was done with a new microperimetry system that measures functional visual acuity at 27 discrete locations and the Humphrey visual field analyzer.All patients had better areas of visual sensitivity toward the nasal macula. Follow-up examination showed no changes in the clinical appearance of the retina. Visual acuities ranged from -0.10 logMAR (Snellen equivalent, approximately 20/16) to 0.50 logMAR (Snellen equivalent, approximately 20/63) in the better eye. No significant changes in visual acuity were found over time. Local multifocal electroretinogram deficits were found in all patients. Patients with grade 2 or 3 disease had large patches of decreased amplitudes and delayed implicit times. Results of the anatomical, electrophysiological, and psychophysical tests were consistent.The electrophysiological and psychophysical deficits found in patients with more severe disease were consistent with an abnormal development of fixation from the anatomical fovea toward the optic nerve head with the placement of the lesion temporal to fixation (into the nasal visual field).

We examined the effects of inter-modal attention and mental arithmetic on Humphrey visual field sensitivity and multifocal visual evoked potential (mfVEP) amplitude. Four normally sighted subjects (ages ranging from 24 to 58years) participated in this study. Monocular visual field sensitivity was measured under two conditions: (1) standard testing condition and (2) while the subject performed a Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT). Monocular mfVEPs were recorded in response to a 60-sector stimulus. The checkerboard pattern in each sector was contrast reversed according to a binary m-sequence. mfVEPs were recorded under two conditions: (1) standard testing conditions and (2) while the subject performed a PASAT. We found that, when compared to the no-task condition, all subjects had locations of significantly reduced Humphrey visual field sensitivities when performing the PASAT. In contrast, there were no significant decreases in mfVEP amplitude in any sector for any of the subjects while performing the PASAT. Our findings indicate that divided attention and ongoing mental processes did not affect the mfVEP. Therefore, the mfVEP provides an objective measure of visual field function that may be useful for some patients with unreliable automated static perimetry results.

PURPOSE: To identify clinical vision measures that are associated with the driving performance of glaucoma patients who have visual field loss and visual acuity better than 20/100 and to compare the driving performance of glaucoma patients with the driving performance of a group of age- and sex-equivalent individuals without eye disease. PATIENTS: Forty patients with glaucoma and 17 normally sighted control subjects participated in this study. METHODS: Clinical vision data, consisting of visual acuity, letter contrast sensitivity, and visual fields, were collected. Driving performance was assessed by (1) an interactive driving simulator that measured 7 indices of performance (including number of accidents) and (2) the self-reported accident involvement for the past 5 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Driving simulator performance and real-world, self-reported accident involvement. RESULTS: The number of accidents as measured on the driving simulator in the glaucoma group was significantly correlated with three Goldmann visual field measures: combined horizontal extent (rho = -0.47, P = 0.01), total horizontal extent (rho = -0.49, P = 0.007), and total peripheral extent (rho = -0.55, P = 0.002). There were no statistically significant correlations between the driving performance of the glaucoma group and the visual acuity or contrast sensitivity measures. When compared with the control group, a significantly greater proportion of the glaucoma group reported having at least one real-world accident within the past 5 years (Fisher exact test, P = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Visual field reduced to less than 100 degrees of horizontal extent may place patients with peripheral field loss at greater accident risk. A higher incidence of real-world and simulator accidents was found for the group with glaucoma.

PURPOSE: (1) To compare the outcomes of orientation and mobility and driving training with Fresnel prisms and the Gottlieb Visual Field Awareness System for patients with homonymous hemianopsia, and (2) To determine whether the patients continue to use the optical enhancement devices at a 2-year follow-up point. METHODS: Patients with homonymous hemianopsia were provided with a rehabilitation program where they were fitted with prism lenses and trained to use them for navigation and driving. Telephone interviews were used to obtain information about device usage 2 years following the completion of the training program. RESULTS: Patients' performance was compared with a test-retest criterion in the visual skills areas of recognition, mobility, peripheral detection, scanning, tracking, and visual memory. Patients with hemianopic loss showed improvements in all of the visual skills categories, ranging from the highest improvements of 26% of tasks improved in the mobility category to 13% in the recognition category. The majority of the hemianopic patients reported using the devices at the 2-year follow-up interview. CONCLUSIONS: The patients with homonymous hemianopsia showed improvements in visual functioning using prism lenses, although these improvements were smaller than those found in previous studies with central or bilateral peripheral vision loss groups who were trained to use other optical enhancement devices for navigation and driving using a similar curriculum. However, given the evidence of increased risk of accidents for patients with peripheral vision loss, the safety of peripheral enhancement devices for driving must be thoroughly evaluated before their impact on public safety is known.

The multifocal electroretinogram (mfERG) has been commonly used as a method for obtaining objective visual fields. Although qualitative comparisons have been good, quantitative comparisons between the results from mfERG and the results from Humphrey Visual Field Analyser (HVFA) have found variable degrees of agreement depending upon the mfERG response parameter examined and/or the disease studied. Lack of agreement may be due to differences in methodology, differences in the sites of response generation, and/or differences derived from comparing suprathreshold versus threshold responses. In addition, the two procedures are performed at different levels of adaptation. We developed an approach for matching stimulus parameters and compared mfERG and psychophysical thresholds to assess the effects of technique and level of adaptation on the two responses. Psychophysical and mfERG thresholds were obtained as a function of the adaptation level (1.5–4.0 log td) and retinal location. The derived increment threshold-versus-intensity functions for both measures were fitted using the equation log T =log T 0 +log(( A + A 0 )/ A 0 ) n . We found that the values of A 0 for the mfERG data were one log unit higher than those for the psychophysical data. In addition, the value of the slope ( n ) for the mfERG data was shallower (0.8) than that of the psychophysical data (1.0). Predictions were made about comparisons of HVFA threshold and mfERG amplitude data in patients with retinal disease based upon a two-site model of adaptation. The data for some groups of patients could be best-fitted with a model of a disease acting at a site distal to all gain changes, whereas data from other patients were best fitted with a model of a disease acting at a site proximal to all retinal gain. The relationship between the Humphrey visual field threshold losses and mfERG amplitude reductions depends upon the site and mechanism of a particular disease process and the model of retinal gain assumed. In no case is a one-to-one relationship between the losses in the two measures predicted.

Purpose To investigate the functioning in daily task performance of individuals with retinitis pigmentosa (RP). Goals were (1) to quantify the relationships among clinical tests of vision, self-reports, and evaluations of actual task performance to predict difficulty in these tasks; and (2) to validate self-report questionnaire data about daily task performance with observations and measurements of actual task performance conducted by a certified low-vision specialist. Design A cross-sectional study and survey. Participants Sixty-two individuals with RP (mean age, 37 years) participated in the study. Methods We obtained data about task performance from subjects' reports about their daily performance as assessed by a 53-item questionnaire and from a specialist's rating about actual ability on a 64-item battery of tasks, including ones similar to those assessed with the questionnaire. Main outcome measures Clinical measures of vision included visual acuity, visual fields using Goldmann perimetry, letter contrast sensitivity, and cone and rod electroretinogram (ERG) function. The questionnaire and functional tasks were clustered into three categories: "reading," "mobility," and "peripheral detection." Results Self-report was correlated significantly with actual task performance. Task performance was correlated significantly with clinical test performance. Moderate or worse difficulty in performance was observed only for visual acuity worse than 20/40; log contrast sensitivity less than 1.4; a visual field area smaller than 2000 deg 2 (area equivalent to a 50-degree diameter of visual field to the Goldmann II-4-e target); and ERG amplitudes less than 10 microvolts for 32-Hz light-adapted white flicker. Conclusions Despite the significant correlations, there remains variability in task performance that is unaccounted for in some individuals with low levels of clinical test performance. The assessment of actual task performance validated the use of self-reports in individuals with RP.

To test the effectiveness of a bioptic form of a peripheral vision-enhancement lens in patients with retinitis pigmentosa (RP), choroideremia, and Usher's syndrome Type II.Fifteen patients with peripheral visual field loss were trained in the use of the amorphic lenses for driving and other everyday activities for a 3-month period. A cross-over study design was used, where one group of eight patients received training during the first 3 months of the 6-month study, and another group of seven patients received training during the second 3 months. All patients were administered a battery of clinical, psychophysical, functional, mobility, and driving assessment tests at the beginning of the study, at 3 months, and at 6 months. The assessment tests were coded according to the primary visual skill involved in the task. These visual skills included: recognition, peripheral detection, scanning, tracking, visual memory, and mobility.After training, the patients showed improvement in all visual skills categories on the assessment tests, with overall improvement of 37%. There was no significant difference in the levels of improvement between the two groups. Those with smaller visual field extents showed significantly greater improvement on peripheral detection and scanning tasks. Those patients trained during the first 3 months of the study maintained their skills when tested at the 6-month point.Patients with peripheral vision loss may benefit from a rehabilitation program which combines low vision training with amorphic lenses in a bioptic configuration.

The multi-input technique of Sutter and Tran (1992) yields multiple focal ERGs. The purpose here was to compare the components of this multifocal ERG to the components of the standard, full-field ERG. To record multifocal ERGs, an array of 103 hexagons was displayed on a monitor. Full-field (Ganzfeld) ERGs were elicited by flashes presented upon steady background fields. The latencies of two prominent subcomponents of the full-field ERG were altered by varying the intensity of the incremental flash or the intensity of the background field. By showing that similar manipulations of the multi-input parameters produce similar changes in latency, we were able to relate the components of the multifocal ERG to the components of the full-field ERG. The biphasic responses of the multifocal ERG appear to be generated by the same cells generating the a-wave and positive peaks of the full-field cone ERG.

Previous studies have found an increase in peripheral target localization errors in normally sighted older adults. These results have been interpreted as indicative of a constriction of the "useful field of view". In the present study, we parametrically manipulated masking, distractors and stimulus luminance and examined the relationships between peripheral target localization and age. We found that backward masking and/or flashed distractors increased error rates. This decrement in performance was larger for more peripherally located targets and largest for the older subjects at all stimulus locations. Stimulus luminance (either 2 or 78 cd/m2) had no effect on peripheral localization performance at any age. We also demonstrated that all subjects, regardless of age, had higher localization error rates to more peripherally located targets. In older subjects, error rates increased equally at all eccentricities; that is, there was an eccentricity independent increase in the number of target localization errors as a function of age. This finding does not support the interpretation of a selective constriction of the functional visual field in older subjects.

Purpose: To assess changes in measures of visual function in patients with retinitis pigmentosa (RP) over time. Methods: Patients with RP and visual acuity of 20/40 or better and central visual fields of 10° or larger were enrolled in a 9-year prospective study. The following measures of visual function were obtained annually over the follow-up period: visual acuity, Gold-mann visual fields (V4e target), focal electroretinograms, and hue discrimination. Results: Over the follow-up period, the averaged group data showed changes in all measures of visual function. The smallest amount of change occurred for visual acuity and hue discrimination, and the greatest amount of change occurred for visual field area. Examination of individual patient data over the follow-up period indicated that the rates of change varied among patients and that losses in function for one measure did not correlate well with losses on other measures. Conclusions: These results stress that although visual function deteriorated over time for this group of patients with RP, there were differences among our measures of visual function. Measures that primarily assess central retinal function change relatively slowly compared with measures that assess more peripheral retinal function.

The hypothesis that reductions in Snellen acuities in patients with retinitis pigmentosa are due solely to losses of photoreceptors was tested by measuring the effects of random losses of sampling elements on letter identification. Sampling element losses were mimicked by setting the luminance of randomly selected pixels equal to the luminance of the surround. The amount of pixel blanking ranged from 0 to 90%. Letters varying in retinal subtense from 5 to 17 min arc were presented for 500 msec. Although letter identification accuracy decreased with increasing pixel blanking for all letter sizes, performance remained relatively high even when a majority of the pixels was blanked. The data suggest that unless the loss of cone photoreceptors in greater than 80%, loss of sampling elements alone can not account for letter acuities poorer than20/40. In addition to loss of cone photoreceptors in patients with RP, there are histological reports of photoreceptor abnormalities and psychophysical studies of visual sensory deficits. It is conceivable that these alone, or in combination with losses of photoreceptors, could account for decreased visual acuity. In a series of experiments, stimulus parameters were manipulated in order to mimic the effects of some of these abnormalities and deficits and the effects on letter identification were examined. The results of these experiments demonstrated that sampling element loss interacts with sensory factors (e.g. luminance and contrast sensitivity) and perceptual factors (e.g. set size and letter orientation) to reduce letter identification accuracy. The implication of these results is that decreases in letter acuity observed in patients with retinitis pigmentosa cannot be attributedsolely to a random loss of sampling elements in the underlying retina, but may be due to the combination of photoreceptor degeneration and other sensory and perceptual factors.

To investigate the relative sensory and perceptual contributions to central visual function of patients with retinitis pigmentosa (RP), we tested symmetry discrimination using block patterns with varying types of symmetric organization. Eleven control subjects with normal vision and 11 patients with RP with 20/30 visual acuity or better, viewed patterns presented for 255 msec. The patterns differed in the type of symmetric organization and the subjects were required to identify the type. The control subjects performed significantly better (89.2%) than the patients (74.5%). Four hypotheses to account for these findings were tested and the results were as follows, (1) A reduction in pattern luminance did not change symmetry discrimination performance in the control subjects. (2) Large reductions in pattern contrast did not alter symmetry discrimination in the control subjects. (3) Reductions in stimulus duration, likewise, did not produce similar error patterns in the control subjects as those observed in the patients with RP. (4) Alterations in spatial sampling density did not completely account for the patients' deficits. None of the retinally based explanations alone was sufficient to account for our findings. Additionally, we suggest that alterations of sensory input may affect the perceptual encoding of the relationship among pattern elements.

The aim of this study was to determine the relative effects of age and compromised vision on driving-related skills and on-road accidents. A total of 107 subjects were tested. They represented four groups that varied in age and visual status, as follows: (1) a younger, normally sighted group; (2) an older, normally sighted group; (3) a younger, visually compromised group; and (4) an older, visually compromised group. Driving performance was assessed by self-reported and state-recorded accident frequency and by an evaluation of performance on an interactive driving simulator. The older groups had poorer driving-related skills, as measured with our interactive driving simulator, than had the younger groups, but they did not have significantly higher on-road accident rates than the younger groups. The older subjects and those with compromised vision had reduced risk-taking scores, as measured with a self-report questionnaire. In addition, all older drivers had increased eye movements and had slower simulator driving speeds, which suggests that behavioral compensation is made for visuocognitive/motor deficits. Regression analyses showed that compromised vision and visual field loss predicted real-world accidents in our study population.

Purpose. To assess the influences of stimulus parameters (physics) on measures of visual field sensitivity (psychophysics). Methods. Subjects’ thresholds were measured on three different clinically available perimeters: the Humphrey Field Analyzer (HFA), the Nidek MP1 (MP1), and the Opko OCT/SLO (OSLO). On all machines, visual field testing was done with a 10-2 spatial distribution of test points, using Goldmann Size III and Size I stimuli, with a presentation time of 200 ms, and using a 4-2 threshold algorithm. Results. All the MP1 and OSLO data fell below the values for the corresponding points on the HFA. For the Goldmann Size III target, the HFA median threshold was 33 dB, whereas the MP1 median threshold was 19 dB and the OLSO, 18 dB. Using the increment intensity values at each dB level for each microperimeter, the data were converted to equivalent HFA dB. Using this conversion, the smallest increment displayed in the MP1 (1.27 cd/m 2 ) was equivalent to 34 HFA dB, and the brightest increment displayed by the MP1 was 14 HFA dB (127 cd/m 2 ). The smallest increment displayed in the OSLO (1.56 cd/m 2 ) was equivalent to 33.1 HFA dB, and the brightest increment displayed by the OSLO was 13.6 HFA dB (137 cd/m 2 ). There was good correspondence among these results when compared using equivalent increment threshold units. However, discrepancies in our findings made us acutely aware of the importance of evaluating the consequences of design choices made by the manufacturers. Conclusions. The findings underscore the need for users to check their assumptions about what the equipment is doing and to always evaluate the psychophysical consequences of the stimuli that are used by a particular instrument. (Optom Vis Sci 2012;89:1182–1191)

To investigate the relationship between depression and quantitative measures of visual function, we recruited 18 subjects with central scotomas from macular degeneration who were enrolled in a reading rehabilitation program. Psychological batteries and reading assessments were administered prior to rehabilitation; reading assessments and a measure of adaptation to vision loss were administered following rehabilitation. We investigated relationships between reported levels of depressive symptoms and reading and adaptation outcome measures by using Pearson product moment correlation analysis. Results revealed a significant relationship between depression levels and reading acuity difference scores (r(16) = 0.54, p = 0.02) and changes in adaptation to vision loss levels (r(16) = 0.62, p = 0.01), suggesting that those who reported greater depressive symptoms did not respond as well functionally to reading rehabilitation but reported greater improvement in levels of adaptation to vision loss following rehabilitation. Future research should focus on defining standard methods to assess and remediate depression as part of the rehabilitation process.

The timing of visual evoked potential (VEP) amplitude and phase changes following abrupt increases or decreases in contrast was examined. Gratings (1 c/deg) were presented at a low contrast for 8 sec, increased to a higher contrast for 8 sec, and then decreased to the initial lower contrast for another 8 sec. Second harmonic VEP amplitude and phase were recorded continuously and averaged in 1 sec epochs. Both amplitude and phase exhibited delays in reaching a stable level following the contrast change. For amplitude, the length of the delay was dependent on the magnitude and direction of the contrast step and on the spatial frequency of the stimulus. Time constants for the change in amplitude following step increases in contrast ranged from 0.2 sec for a 12% contrast step to 1.34 sec for a 37% contrast step. The timing of phase changes, however, was independent of the size of the contrast increases (tau = 0.7 sec). For step decreases in contrast, both amplitude and phase were relatively independent of the size of the change (tau = approx. 0.9 sec for amplitude and tau = 0.15 sec for phase). Amplitude time constants also increased with increasing spatial frequency (tau = 1.2 sec for 1 c/deg, tau = 1.6 sec for 4 c/deg and tau = 2.3 sec for 8 c/deg); phase time constants, however, did not change as a function of spatial frequency (tau = 0.7 for all spatial frequencies). These findings demonstrate that a unitary process may not always be tapped by signal averaging techniques. Additionally, swept stimulus VEP techniques may produce considerable errors in threshold estimation depending on the stimulus spatial frequency and on the slope and direction of the contrast change.

Single-cell electrophysiologic studies have shown that dopamine modulates retinal activity, but its role in human retinal processing is unclear. We investigated the effects of short-term oral administration of dopaminergic receptor blocking agents on the flash electroretinogram in humans. Both chlorpromazine (25 and 50 mg) and fluphenazine (1 and 2 mg) significantly reduced electroretinogram b-wave amplitudes and also selectively reduced the amplitude of the first oscillatory potential. Implicit times were not altered. Metoclopramide (10 and 20 mg) had no effect on any electroretinographic variable. Our study indicates that dopamine receptor blocking agents with both D-1 and D-2 receptor affinities reduce the amplitude of the electroretinogram in humans.

Purpose To quantify the effects of three vision rehabilitation training approaches on improvements in reading performance. Methods Thirty subjects with AMD participated in the training portion of the study. The median age of the subjects was 79 years (range, 54-89 years). The three training modules were: Visual Awareness and Eccentric Viewing (module 1), Control of Reading Eye Movements (module 2), and Reading Practice with Sequential Presentation of Lexical Information (module 3). Subjects were trained for 6 weekly sessions on each module, and the order of training was counterbalanced. All subjects underwent four assessments: at baseline and at three 6-week intervals. Reading performance was measured before and after each training module. A separate group of 6 subjects was randomly assigned to a control condition in which there was no training. These subjects underwent repeated assessments separated by 6 weeks. Results Reading speeds decreased by an average of 8.4 words per minute (wpm) after training on module 1, increased by 27.3 wpm after module 2, and decreased by 9.8 wpm after module 3. Only the increase in reading speed after module 2 was significantly different from zero. Sentence reading speeds for the control group, who had no reading rehabilitation intervention, was essentially unchanged over the 18 weeks (0.96 ± 1.3 wpm). Conclusions A training curriculum that concentrates on eye movement control increased reading speed in subjects with AMD. This finding does not suggest that the other rehabilitation modules have no value; it suggests that they are simply not the most effective for reading rehabilitation.

The P300 cortical evoked potential was compared to the P100 wave of the visual evoked potential by means of appearance/disappearance gratings. The spatial frequency of the novel stimulus was varied to compare the effect of task sensory difficulty on both P100 and P300 potentials. The P100 showed a steady increase in latency with the spatial frequency of the uncommon stimulus, and a degree of amplitude tuning consistent with the contrast sensitivity function. The P300 showed marked changes in both amplitude and latency dependent almost wholly on the proximity of the uncommon stimulus spatial frequency to that of the common stimulus. Motor reaction time showed elements of both the P100 and P300 response patterns. The results are consistent with a model in which, after visual information arrives at the visual cortex, processing is parallel and interdependent. In this model, the amplitude and latency of the P100 cortical evoked potential are governed solely by properties intrinsic to the stimulus, whereas the amplitude and latency of the P300 are functions of the degree of stimulus mismatch.