Search

Selected flavor compounds from wood were quantified, with liquid chromatography hyphenated to electrospray ionization and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS), in four samples of base spirit matured with acacia, cedar, virgin oak, and used port wine oak wood cubes and the results were used to describe and differentiate their different wood congener profiles. ESI-MS/MS parameters were optimized in terms of capillary voltage, cone- and desolvation gas flow, source- and desolvation temperature, cone voltage, and collision energy. The method was validated in terms of linearity (R2 > 0.995), limit of detection, limit of quantification, recovery, and repeatability. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that for most compounds there were no significant differences (α = 0.05) between seven to 30 days of aging plus a heat treatment at 40 °C, but wood type did significantly influence the wood congener profile. Principal component analysis discriminated the spirits based on relative amounts of wood congeners extracted, and the chemical profile. Aging with cedar wood led to a less pronounced chemical profile, not very distinct from the base spirit. Aging with acacia and virgin oak wood produced a second chemical profile with relatively higher levels of synapaldehyde, syringaldehyde, scopoletin, and coniferyl aldehyde. Aging with port oak wood produced a third chemical profile with relatively higher levels of 5-HMF, gallic acid, furfural, vanillic acid, and syringic acid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Food Safety & Quality is the property of Journal of Food Safety & Quality Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Why was the work done: Guidelines are required to optimise the sensory detection of musty/stale taints in alcoholic spirits caused by 2,4,6-trichloroanisole. Early detection of the taint is necessary as the low sensory threshold can result in significant quality issues and masking the musty/stale off-note through blending is difficult. How was the work done: The standard industry practice for 'nosing' is to dilute samples of spirit to 20% ABV to prevent sensory fatigue. It is not known if 20% ABV is the optimal concentration for detecting 2,4,6-trichloroanisole. In this study, the effects of ethanol concentration on the detection of the taint were evaluated using a sensory panel and gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. The efficacy of nosing versus tasting to detect 2,4,6-trichloroanisole was investigated at different dilutions of distilled spirits. Further, the stability of this off-note at 20% ABV was determined to assess if the taint could be detected by nosing over a working day. Finally, the serving temperature of the sample was assessed in the sensory perception of the taint. What are the main findings: The recommendations to optimise the sensory detection of 2,4,6-trichloroanisole in spirit samples are (i) nose samples at 20% ABV, (ii) as soon as possible after dilution conduct sensory tests and (iii) chill the sample. Why is the work important: The limits of detection for conventional solid phase microextraction with gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy are typically above the threshold of human perception. Therefore, the industry needs to maximise the detection by sensory panellists of contaminated whisky samples to ensure the product does not go to market so as to avoid any reputational damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Waste by-products such as pot ale are abundantly produced during the whisky distillation process and are conventionally used as livestock feed, however a significant proportion continues to require land and sea disposal. Here, the novel potential of whisky by-products as antioxidant and antibacterial agents was investigated. Methods: The total phenolic content and antioxidant potential of waste by-products from whisky distillation were evaluated using FC and DPPH assays. Their DNA protective properties were assessed with gel electrophoresis. The cytotoxicity and cell protective effects of pot ale, in addition to its antibacterial activity, were also studied in this work. Results: Pot ale demonstrated the strongest antioxidant activity of the by-products tested and could reduce DNA damage by 52% at 0.5 mg/mL. Furthermore, pot ale was non-toxic in a neuroblastoma cell line up to 5 mg/mL and protected against the toxic effects of two inducers of oxidative stress (rotenone and hydrogen peroxide) by up to 1.25-fold. Pot ale also showed potent antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus with the minimum inhibitory concentration of 25 µg/mL and 1.56 µg/mL respectively. Conclusion: This work provides the first evidence of the potential of whisky by-products as antioxidants and antimicrobials with no adverse effects in cells, thereby promoting a circular economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of China Brewing is the property of China Brewing Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Reliable identification of high-value products such as whisky is vital due to rising issues of brand substitution and quality control in the industry. We have developed a novel framework that can perform whisky analysis directly from raw spectral data with no human intervention by integrating machine learning models with a portable Raman device. We demonstrate that machine learning models can achieve over 99% accuracy in brand or product identification across twenty-eight commercial samples. To demonstrate the flexibility of this approach, we utilized the same algorithms to quantify ethanol concentrations, as well as measuring methanol levels in spiked whisky samples. To demonstrate the potential use of these algorithms in a real-world environment we tested our algorithms on spectral measurements performed through the original whisky bottle. Through the bottle measurements are facilitated by a beam geometry hitherto not applied to whisky brand identification in conjunction with machine learning. Removing the need for decanting greatly enhances the practicality and commercial potential of this technique, enabling its use in detecting counterfeit or adulterated spirits and other high-value liquids. The techniques established in this paper aim to function as a rapid and non-destructive initial screening mechanism for detecting falsified and tampered spirits, complementing more comprehensive and stringent analytical methods.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of a droplet collar accessory attached to a portable near-infrared (NIR) instrument to characterize the artificial contamination of methanol in commercial whisky samples. Unadulterated samples (n = 12) were purchased from local bottle shops where adulterated samples were created by adding methanol (99% pure methanol) at six levels (0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% v/v) to the commercial whisky samples (controls). Samples were analyzed using a drop collar accessory attached to a MicroNIR Onsite instrument (900–1650 nm). Partial least squares (PLS) cross-validation statistics obtained for the prediction of all levels of methanol (from 0 to 5%) addition were considered adequate when the whole adulteration range was used, coefficient of determination in cross-validation (R2cv: 0.95) and standard error in cross of validation (SECV: 0.35% v/v). The cross-validation statistics were R2cv: 0.97, SECV: 0.28% v/v after the 0.5% and 1% v/v methanol addition was removed. These results showed the ability of using a new sample presentation attachment to a portable NIR instrument to analyze the adulteration of whisky with methanol. However, the low levels of methanol adulteration (0.5 and 1%) were not well predicted using the NIR method evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evaluation of aroma properties of beverages, both analytically as well as with human sensory studies, is a challenging task and most often related to time- and cost-intensive analyses. Whisky is a spirit offering a wide variety of aroma impressions caused by a complex mixture of aroma active compounds. In the present study, methods for the efficient evaluation of aroma characteristics are evaluated for 16 whisky samples of different origins (Scotch and American). Rate all that apply (RATA) was applied as a rapid method for the sensory evaluation of whiskies. Sensory evaluation of the samples led to the determination of eight significant aroma attributes: caramel-/cream caramel-/toffee-like, vanilla-like, (canned) peach-like, phenolic, smoky, fruity, flowery and (fermented) apple-/cider-like. Chemical analysis was conducted by stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in combination with an in-house data processing tool for semi-automated analyte detection. Through chemical analysis of the whisky samples and automated compound detection, we report over 200 mostly aroma-active volatiles. To test both approaches for their potential for sample classification, a simple classification problem (Scotch vs. American) was applied. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) indicates both that sensory evaluation by RATA (97.86%) and the applied analytical procedure (96.94%) are suitable for the distinction between the two whisky types. In both approaches, potential markers were determined for the classification. These investigations build a solid foundation for the implementation of a versatile platform facilitating rapid and efficient aroma evaluation in various foodstuffs and beverages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to explore the effect of different distillation methods on the key aroma compounds of whisky, the aroma composition of base whisky produced by two different distillation methods: double distillation in pot stills and continuous distillation in tower stills, and whisky aged with oak chips was detected by headspace-solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The characteristic aroma compounds were determined by odor activity values (OAVs), and the effect of distillation methods on the characteristic aroma of whisky was investigated by sensory evaluation. The results demonstrated that the distillation methods led to significant differences in the raw material-like, fermented and distilled aromas of base whisky. Pot-distilled whisky retained more aroma characteristics of the raw material. The difference in fermented aroma was mainly reflected by the ethyl ester content. More medium-chain and long-chain fatty acid ethyl esters were retained during pot distillation, while more short-chain fatty acid ethyl esters contributing to the fermented aroma were retained during tower distillation. The aroma differences brought about by the distillation methods affected the change of aroma compounds during subsequent aging. After aging, more fermented aroma compounds in pot-distilled whisky were lost, but the distilled aroma and the aged aroma from oak chips were more prominent. Although the aged aroma could attenuate the aroma difference between base whisky produced by different distillation methods, the effect of the distillation methods on the aroma was still evident. The choice of the appropriate distillation process is essential for the production of whisky.

A rapid headspace analysis method for the authenticity testing of whiskies of different brands and years was developed for a low cost, deployable atmospheric pressure ionisation mass spectrometer, which required minimal sample preparation. Principal component analysis was applied to the time-averaged mass spectra, the classification results for which were compared against artificial neural network methods. The artificial neural network was found to outperform PCA, achieving ≥95% accuracy for all sampling conditions, with only two misclassifications under the ideal conditions, while requiring less development time.

Baijiu is a traditional spirit with high reputation in the Chinese community, and whisky, on the other hand, is a renowned spirit in Western culture, with both contributing a major proportion to the consumption and revenue in the global spirit market. Interestingly, starting with similar raw materials, such as grains, diverse production methods lead to different organoleptic profiles. In addition, such enormous attention they attract renders them as a crucial part in food and the related industry. Therefore, great efforts are made in improving product quality and optimizing production processes, such as flavor enhancement, facility development, and deep utilization of byproducts. Given the huge impacts and great involvements of these spirits in the general food industry, research focusing on either spirit is of referential significance for other relevant fields. With the aim of facilitating such collaboration, this review discusses the current research status, in a comparative manner, of both spirits in respect to key production processes-oriented sensory and flavor analysis, deep utilization of byproducts, and spirit-derived functional food investigations. Finally, the internal correlations based on the abovementioned criteria are identified, with research prospects proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study characterised the behaviour of congeners during the multistage discontinuous distillation of whisky using a Stupfler-type still. It investigated the influence of recycling the head and tail fractions on the composition of the unaged spirit and, for the compounds with known equilibrium data, to validate the capability of software tools to simulate their behaviour during distillation. To this end, profile curves of ethanol (% ABV) and 45 aroma compounds (mg/L) during distillation are reported, with 27 compounds compared to simulated data using ProSim® BatchColumn software. Further, the mass distribution of each compound in the fractions of discarded head, recycled head, heart, tail and residue are estimated. Assuming that this distribution was maintained during each distillation, it was shown that for the wash, a pseudo-steady state was achieved in less than five distillations with the true recovery rate of each compound in the heart assessed. This study demonstrates that during distillation, the congeners behave according to the ethanol content of the boiling liquid in the column. It provides information on the separation of volatile compounds in a batch still with a distillation column above the heater. Additionally, the data highlights the importance to the unaged spirit of recycling the head and tail fractions. These results provide useful information for distillers to choose the appropriate way of collecting the heart fraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New product development for distilled spirits frequently involves experimental trials at the laboratory scale that attempt to replicate industrial-scale production processes. This process is time-consuming and limits the number of samples that can be analysed. The aim of the present study was to conduct laboratory-scale Scotch malt whisky production experiments to determine if samples taken from earlier in the production process, that is, directly after fermentation (wash stage) or after a single distillation (low wines stage), showed similar analytical differentiation compared to samples of fresh distillates (new make spirits). Napping, a rapid sensory method, was used to assess the impact on flavour characteristics while solid-phase microextraction (SPME) gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was used to analyse volatile flavour congeners. Hierarchical Multiple Factor Analysis was used to compare the product maps from samples taken at each whisky production stage and revealed a pattern of differences across the samples that could be tracked through the process. Although the flavour descriptors and volatile congeners composition changed at each stage, there were only marginal changes in the differentiation between samples, resulting in the same sample groups being found in all analyses. RV coefficients >0.90 for all analytical comparisons and >0.74 overall showed that all product maps were highly similar to each other and showed the same overall differentiation between samples. These results indicate that the analysis of fermented malt whisky wash may provide sufficient information to proceed to larger-scale industry trials, saving time and allowing a greater number of parameters to be explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Shipin Kexue/ Food Science is the property of Food Science Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Yeast format and pitching rate are variables which can be easily manipulated in a distillery environment but are seldom altered. Fermentations using dried and liquid yeast were studied at laboratory scale and compared by application of a 4-parameter logistic model to measurements of the decline in apparent extract during fermentation. Congener analysis of new make distillate allowed comparison between compounds of interest produced during fermentation. The liquid yeast format demonstrated a significant reduction (p<0.05) in lag time, which was 68% shorter than dried yeast. Despite this, longer overall fermentation times were observed due to a slower exponential phase as compared to the dried yeast format. Alteration of the yeast pitching rate using dried and liquid formats, demonstrated that high rates resulted in reduced lag times. The maximum fermentation rates (Vmax) were assessed from the fermentation models and no consistent trend could be identified. Dried yeast was observed to achieve its maximum fermentation rate when underpitched. Substantially higher Vmax values were obtained with overpitched liquid yeast fermentations, resulting in faster fermentations, compared to underpitched liquid yeast fermentations. The liquid yeast format created more esters compared to dried yeast. The concentration of ethyl esters generally trended downwards for fermentations pitched with less yeast which fully attenuated. By combining the results of these studies, distillers can make informed decisions to optimise spirit character, quality, and distillery production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spent grain is the solid fraction remaining after wort removal. It is nutritionally rich, composed of fibers—mainly hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin—proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals, and must be managed properly. Spent grain is a by-product with high moisture, high protein and high fiber content and is susceptible to microbial contamination; thus, a suitable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly valorization method of processing it is required. This by-product is used as a raw material in the production of many other food products—bakery products, pasta, cookies, muffins, wafers, snacks, yogurt or plant-based yogurt alternatives, Frankfurter sausages or fruit beverages—due to its nutritional values. The circular economy is built on waste reduction and the reuse of by-products, which find opportunities in the regeneration and recycling of waste materials and energy that become inputs in other processes and food products. Waste disposal in the food industry has become a major issue in recent years when attempting to maintain hygiene standards and avoid soil, air and water contamination. Fortifying food products with spent grain follows the precepts of the circular bio-economy and industrial symbiosis of strengthening sustainable development. The purpose of this review is to update information on the addition of spent grain to various foods and the influence of spent grain on these foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blackmiddens Farm distillery, also known as Buck distillery, has recently been the focus of historical research and excavation. At the time of the first season of fieldwork Blackmiddens/Buck was the only farm distillery to have been excavated in the Highlands and Islands. The site represents a short-lived period of distilling in the Scottish Highlands in which whisky-making operated in a legitimate commercial capacity but as a complement to a larger agricultural unit. The excavation of Blackmiddens and historical research into it and the distilleries in the surrounding area have given us an insight into this short but vital transitional phase in the history of whisky-making in the region.

An "omics"-style approach was used to evaluate the complex relationship between whisky aroma and dilution with water, typically suggested as a way to better appreciate whisky. A set of 25 samples, including Bourbons, ryes, single-malt and blended Scotches, and Irish whiskies were chemically profiled at six dilution levels (100, 90, 80, 70, 60, and 50% whisky/water), while a subset of six whiskies (three Bourbons, three Scotches) at four dilution levels (100, 80, 60, and 40% whisky/water) were chemically profiled and subjected to sensory analysis by a trained panel (n = 20). Untargeted volatile analysis was performed using headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) and sensory analysis was performed using descriptive analysis (DA). Results were evaluated using multivariate statistical techniques, including multifactor analysis (MFA) and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). Dilution decreased headspace concentration of hydrophilic aroma compounds and increased concentration of more hydrophobic compounds, which agreed with DA results. Dilution above 80% whisky/20% water reduced differences within whisky styles, though differences between American (Bourbon, rye) and Scotch styles (single malt, blended) continued to increase with further dilution. This provides important insight into how dilution of whisky during consumption changes consumer perception, as well as the usefulness of HS-SPME-GC-MS as a proxy for human olfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fine-grade cocoa beans are characterized by their great organoleptic quality. Brazilian cocoa producers increasingly privilege organoleptic quality over yield. Catongo and FL89, fine Brazilian cocoa genotypes from Bahia, are characterized by particular flavors (respectively, kerosene and whisky). The beans IMC67, PA121, and P7 from the state of Pará are genotypes that have high resistance to diseases. Solvent-assisted flavor evaporation (SAFE) aroma extraction was used here to identify and quantify the volatile compounds discriminating these genotypes. The results show that the kerosene aroma of Catongo is likely due to the presence, at high levels, of ethyl acetate and isobutyl acetate. On the other hand, ethyl benzoate, heptanoate, and octanoate, trans-2-nonenal, 1-octen-3-ol, and 3-methylbutanol could play a key role in the whisky notes of FL89. Heptan-2-ol, heptan-2-one, nonan-2-one, linalool (although still more concentrated in IMC67 from Pará state), benzaldehyde, and phenylacetaldehyde also discriminate these beans. Other compounds, although not discriminating, appear important in determining their aromatic quality. The PCA showed that cocoa from Pará state formed a cluster due to similar aromas, while FL89 was the most distinct among the genotypes. Beans from Brazil show great potential and diversity for the fine cocoa market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of China Brewing is the property of China Brewing Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of a droplet collar accessory attached to a portable near-infrared (NIR) instrument to characterize the artificial contamination of methanol in commercial whisky samples. Unadulterated samples (n = 12) were purchased from local bottle shops where adulterated samples were created by adding methanol (99% pure methanol) at six levels (0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% v/v) to the commercial whisky samples (controls). Samples were analyzed using a drop collar accessory attached to a MicroNIR Onsite instrument (900–1650 nm). Partial least squares (PLS) cross-validation statistics obtained for the prediction of all levels of methanol (from 0 to 5%) addition were considered adequate when the whole adulteration range was used, coefficient of determination in cross-validation (R2cv: 0.95) and standard error in cross of validation (SECV: 0.35% v/v). The cross-validation statistics were R2cv: 0.97, SECV: 0.28% v/v after the 0.5% and 1% v/v methanol addition was removed. These results showed the ability of using a new sample presentation attachment to a portable NIR instrument to analyze the adulteration of whisky with methanol. However, the low levels of methanol adulteration (0.5 and 1%) were not well predicted using the NIR method evaluated.

The maturation of spirit in wooden casks is key to the production of whisky, a hugely popular and valuable product, with the transfer and reaction of molecules from the wooden cask with the alcoholic spirit imparting color and flavor. However, time in the cask adds significant cost to the final product, requiring expensive barrels and decades of careful storage. Thus, many producers are concerned with what "age" means in terms of the chemistry and flavor profiles of whisky. We demonstrate here a colorimetric test for spirit "agedness" based on the formation of gold nanoparticles (NPs) by whisky. Gold salts were reduced by barrel-aged spirit and produce colored gold NPs with distinct optical properties. Information from an extinction profile, such as peak position, growth rate, or profile shape, was analyzed, and our assay output was correlated with measurements of the whisky sample makeup, assays for key functional groups, and spiking experiments to explore the mechanism in more detail. We conclude that age is not just a number, that the chemical fingerprint of key flavor compounds is a useful marker for determining whisky "age", and that our simple reduction assay could assist in defining the aged character of a whisky and become a useful future tool on the warehouse floor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Food Safety & Quality is the property of Journal of Food Safety & Quality Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the spirits industry, understanding the behaviour of volatile flavouring compounds (congeners) during distillation is important. This simulation study with the ProSim software®, BatchColumn, investigates the influence of different parameters of a multi‐stage batch distillation on 57 congeners from five chemical families (alcohols, aldehydes, esters, acids, and terpenes). Industrial and laboratory scale whisky distillations were conducted with a fermented malted barley mash. The simulations illustrated the behaviour of volatile compounds based on how their volatility varied with ethanol concentration. The distribution of compounds between the different fractions (head, heart, tail and residue) was calculated. Further, optimisation strategies for the industrial distillation were tested by simulation. These included (1) cutting distillation later (ethanol mass fraction of 0.061 instead of 0.105) as the recovery of pleasant compounds is small compared to that of acids; (2) choosing an ethanol mass fraction during the heart extraction around 0.60 (67% v/v), rather than 0.67 (75% v/v) as it increases the recovery of compounds of interest and decreases the duration of distillation and energy costs and (3) enabling a higher concentration of ethanol at the beginning of the distillation to obtain better separation of aldehydes and esters. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of the Institute of Brewing published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institute of Brewing & Distilling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scotch malt whisky is typically produced using lightly kilned malted barley that imparts a relatively subtle aroma to the final product. Recently, there has been increased interest in exploring the feasibility of using roasted malts during whisky production to control congener profile. Although roasted malts are used widely within the brewing industry to develop product color and aroma in beer, applications and challenges have not yet been established for whisky production. This study investigated a role for roasted malt as a tool to impact whisky volatile composition and the consequences of such use for production efficiency of whisky new make spirit. Pot still malt was roasted at laboratory scale (0–60 min at 80–220 °C) and incorporated into a grist (≤50% w/w) for production of new make spirit. The influence of roasting conditions on malt processing characteristics and the impact on the concentration of key roasted malt volatile compounds in distillate were assessed using response surface modelling. Concentration of aroma active pyrazines and furans increased in the distillate produced using roasted malts (particularly when using malt heated >150 °C). Key indicators of process efficiency such as wort fermentability and alcohol yield reduced as intensity of malt roasting increased. Process efficiency when using low proportions of roasted malt (10% w/w) was comparable to that when using only pot still malt, but distillate volatile profile still differed significantly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Baijiu is a traditional spirit with high reputation in the Chinese community, and whisky, on the other hand, is a renowned spirit in Western culture, with both contributing a major proportion to the consumption and revenue in the global spirit market. Interestingly, starting with similar raw materials, such as grains, diverse production methods lead to different organoleptic profiles. In addition, such enormous attention they attract renders them as a crucial part in food and the related industry. Therefore, great efforts are made in improving product quality and optimizing production processes, such as flavor enhancement, facility development, and deep utilization of byproducts. Given the huge impacts and great involvements of these spirits in the general food industry, research focusing on either spirit is of referential significance for other relevant fields. With the aim of facilitating such collaboration, this review discusses the current research status, in a comparative manner, of both spirits in respect to key production processes-oriented sensory and flavor analysis, deep utilization of byproducts, and spirit-derived functional food investigations. Finally, the internal correlations based on the abovementioned criteria are identified, with research prospects proposed.

Two hundred and five samples of whisky, including 170 authentic and 35 fake products, were analyzed in terms of their elemental profiles in order to distinguish them according to the parameter of their authenticity. The study of 31 elements (Ag, Al, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Sr, Te, Tl, U, V, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, P, S, Ti and Zn) was performed using the Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) and Cold Vapor-Atomic Absorption (CVAAS) techniques. Additionally, the pH values of all samples were determined by pH-meter, and their isotopic ratios of 88Sr/86Sr, 84Sr/86Sr, 87Sr/86Sr and 63Cu/65Cu were assessed, based on the number of counts by ICP-MS. As a result of conducted research, elements, such as Mn, K, P and S, were identified as markers of whisky adulteration related to the age of alcohol. The concentrations of manganese, potassium and phosphorus were significantly lower in the fake samples (which were not aged, or the aging period was much shorter than legally required), compared to the original samples (in all cases subjected to the aging process). The observed differences were related to the migration of these elements from wooden barrels to the alcohol contained in them. On the other hand, the sulfur concentration in the processed samples was much higher in the counterfeit samples than in the authentic ones. The total sulfur content, such as that of alkyl sulfides, decreases in alcohol with aging in the barrels. Furthermore, counterfeit samples can be of variable origin and composition, so they cannot be characterized as one group with identical or comparable features. Repeatedly, the element of randomness dominates in the production of these kinds of alcohols. However, as indicated in this work, the extensive elemental analysis supported by statistical tools can be helpful, especially in the context of detecting age-related adulteration of whisky. The results presented in this paper are the final part of a comprehensive study on the influence of selected factors on the elemental composition of whisky. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New product development for distilled spirits frequently involves experimental trials at the laboratory scale that attempt to replicate industrial-scale production processes. This process is time-consuming and limits the number of samples that can be analysed. The aim of the present study was to conduct laboratory-scale Scotch malt whisky production experiments to determine if samples taken from earlier in the production process, that is, directly after fermentation (wash stage) or after a single distillation (low wines stage), showed similar analytical differentiation compared to samples of fresh distillates (new make spirits). Napping, a rapid sensory method, was used to assess the impact on flavour characteristics while solid-phase microextraction (SPME) gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was used to analyse volatile flavour congeners. Hierarchical Multiple Factor Analysis was used to compare the product maps from samples taken at each whisky production stage and revealed a pattern of differences across the samples that could be tracked through the process. Although the flavour descriptors and volatile congeners composition changed at each stage, there were only marginal changes in the differentiation between samples, resulting in the same sample groups being found in all analyses. RV coefficients >0.90 for all analytical comparisons and >0.74 overall showed that all product maps were highly similar to each other and showed the same overall differentiation between samples. These results indicate that the analysis of fermented malt whisky wash may provide sufficient information to proceed to larger-scale industry trials, saving time and allowing a greater number of parameters to be explored.

Spent grain is the solid fraction remaining after wort removal. It is nutritionally rich, composed of fibers—mainly hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin—proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals, and must be managed properly. Spent grain is a by-product with high moisture, high protein and high fiber content and is susceptible to microbial contamination; thus, a suitable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly valorization method of processing it is required. This by-product is used as a raw material in the production of many other food products—bakery products, pasta, cookies, muffins, wafers, snacks, yogurt or plant-based yogurt alternatives, Frankfurter sausages or fruit beverages—due to its nutritional values. The circular economy is built on waste reduction and the reuse of by-products, which find opportunities in the regeneration and recycling of waste materials and energy that become inputs in other processes and food products. Waste disposal in the food industry has become a major issue in recent years when attempting to maintain hygiene standards and avoid soil, air and water contamination. Fortifying food products with spent grain follows the precepts of the circular bio-economy and industrial symbiosis of strengthening sustainable development. The purpose of this review is to update information on the addition of spent grain to various foods and the influence of spent grain on these foods.

A total of 170 samples of whisky from 11 countries were analysed in terms of their elemental profiles. The levels of 31 elements were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS): Ag, Al, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Sr, Te, Tl, U, and V, Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) Ca, Fe, K, Mg, P, S, Ti, and Zn and Cold Vapor-Atomic Absorption (CV-AAS): Hg techniques in those alcoholic samples. A comparative analysis of elemental profiles was made on the basis of the content of chosen elements with regard to selected parameters: country of origin, type of whisky (single malt and blended) and age of products. One of the elements which clearly distinguishes single malt and blended types of whisky is copper. Single malt Scotch whisky had a uniform concentration of copper, which is significantly higher for all malt whisky samples when compared with the blended type. Analysis of samples from the USA (n = 26) and Ireland (n = 15) clearly revealed that the objects represented by the same product but originating from independent bottles (e.g., JB, JDG, BUS brands) show common elemental profiles. On the other hand, comparative analysis of Scotch whisky with respect to aging time revealed that the longer the alcohol was aged, (i.e., the longer it stayed in the barrel), the higher the content of Cu and Mn that was recorded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In this study, we used Chinese chestnut as the main raw material to develop a novel type of whiskey. First, 16 yeasts were isolated and identified for producing aroma using olfactory plate assay. Of these, we screened nine yeast strains based on their fermentation capacity, aroma profile, and sensory evaluation. The results demonstrated the combination of strains HN006 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and HN010 (Wickerhamomyces anomalus) provided satisfactory wine fermentation with an interesting flavor profile, as strain HN010 was highly aromatic and had elevated sensory scores with comparatively low ethanol yield, while strain HN006 had a poor flavor profile but produced the largest amount of ethanol. Subsequently, we co-cultured strains HN006 and HN010 to optimize the fermentation system. The results revealed the following optimum parameters: a mixed inoculum of 6% (v/v) at an HN006/HN010 ratio of 1:2 (v/v), a raw material ratio of 5:3:2 (chestnut: malt: glutinous rice), and yeast extract concentration of 6 g/L. Additionally, this fermentation system was successfully scaled-up to a 1000 L pilot-scale system. The results of this study showed that strains HN006 and HN010 could be used as alternatives for whiskey fermentation, as well as provided a generalized experimental scheme to assess other microorganisms.

Aging is one of the most important processes in the production of high-quality spirits, including whisky, brandy and cognac. The contact between wood and distillates is a crucial step for the migration of chemical compounds, which evoke the novel sensory properties of the final products. Novel taste is pleasurable for a vast group of consumers and depends on cultural preferences. In order to demystify the main chemical compounds for aroma contribution, connecting them with a sensory profile of aged spirits is a crucial step in hastening the very timeless process without decreasing the quality. Consumption patterns of spirit drinks have been influenced by changed consumers' preferences and increased availability of different types of spirits on the market. Consumers' choice of one type of spirit drinks over others is significantly shaped by extrinsic attributes and consumer-based factors, but the choice among different available options of the single type of spirit may be based on consumers' perception of its specific sensory attributes. Therefore, the combination of taste, aroma, color and other sensory attributes of a spirit drink can shape consumers' perceived quality of the spirit and impact the potential of its market success in general.

An “omics”-style approach was used to evaluate the complex relationship between whisky aroma and dilution with water, typically suggested as a way to better appreciate whisky. A set of 25 samples, including Bourbons, ryes, single-malt and blended Scotches, and Irish whiskies were chemically profiled at six dilution levels (100, 90, 80, 70, 60, and 50% whisky/water), while a subset of six whiskies (three Bourbons, three Scotches) at four dilution levels (100, 80, 60, and 40% whisky/water) were chemically profiled and subjected to sensory analysis by a trained panel (n = 20). Untargeted volatile analysis was performed using headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) and sensory analysis was performed using descriptive analysis (DA). Results were evaluated using multivariate statistical techniques, including multifactor analysis (MFA) and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). Dilution decreased headspace concentration of hydrophilic aroma compounds and increased concentration of more hydrophobic compounds, which agreed with DA results. Dilution above 80% whisky/20% water reduced differences within whisky styles, though differences between American (Bourbon, rye) and Scotch styles (single malt, blended) continued to increase with further dilution. This provides important insight into how dilution of whisky during consumption changes consumer perception, as well as the usefulness of HS-SPME-GC-MS as a proxy for human olfaction.

Fine-grade cocoa beans are characterized by their great organoleptic quality. Brazilian cocoa producers increasingly privilege organoleptic quality over yield. Catongo and FL89, fine Brazilian cocoa genotypes from Bahia, are characterized by particular flavors (respectively, kerosene and whisky). The beans IMC67, PA121, and P7 from the state of Pará are genotypes that have high resistance to diseases. Solvent-assisted flavor evaporation (SAFE) aroma extraction was used here to identify and quantify the volatile compounds discriminating these genotypes. The results show that the kerosene aroma of Catongo is likely due to the presence, at high levels, of ethyl acetate and isobutyl acetate. On the other hand, ethyl benzoate, heptanoate, and octanoate, trans-2-nonenal, 1-octen-3-ol, and 3-methylbutanol could play a key role in the whisky notes of FL89. Heptan-2-ol, heptan-2-one, nonan-2-one, linalool (although still more concentrated in IMC67 from Pará state), benzaldehyde, and phenylacetaldehyde also discriminate these beans. Other compounds, although not discriminating, appear important in determining their aromatic quality. The PCA showed that cocoa from Pará state formed a cluster due to similar aromas, while FL89 was the most distinct among the genotypes. Beans from Brazil show great potential and diversity for the fine cocoa market.

Flavour in Scotch malt whisky is a key differentiating factor for consumers and producers alike. Yeast (commonly Saccharomyces cerevisiae) metabolites produce a significant amount of this flavour as part of distillery fermentations, as well as ethanol and carbon dioxide. Whilst yeast strains contribute flavour, there is limited information on the relationship between yeast strain and observed flavour profile. In this work, the impact of yeast strain on the aroma profile of new make spirit (freshly distilled, unmatured spirit) was investigated using 24 commercially available active dried yeast strains. The contribution of alcoholic, fruity, sulfury and sweet notes to new make spirit by yeast was confirmed. Generally, distilling strains could be distinguished from brewing and wine strains based on aroma and ester concentrations. However, no statistically significant differences between individual yeast strains could be perceived in the intensity of seven aroma categories typically associated with whisky. Overall, from the yeast strains assessed, it was found that new make spirit produced using yeast strains marketed as 'brewing' strains was preferred in terms of acceptability rating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We complete the literature with the first causality analysis between rare whisky market and other markets, using a recent time-varying Granger causality approach. • Rare whisky and fine wine respectively provide attractive diversification opportunities with stocks, except in hectic periods. Conversely, the combination of whisky and wine is riskier, especially in the recent period since their causal relationship becomes increasingly significant over time. • Our findings give useful insights for whisky and wine investors, and more generally for those that could benefit from the addition of a collectible asset in their portfolio. Whisky has entered the category of alternative investment assets, with particularly attractive returns on certain bottles. The literature has shown the diversification benefits of investing in collectible assets, such as fine wine, but analyses dedicated to whisky investment remain scarce. Using different causality tests – parametric, non-parametric, and time-varying – applied to whisky, wine, and the MSCI World indices, we analyze the connection/disconnection between rare whisky, fine wine, and financial markets over a 13-Year period, from January 2010 to January 2023, in weekly frequency. Our results show that whisky and wine respectively provide attractive diversification opportunities when combined with stocks, except during "hectic" periods. Conversely, the combination of whisky and wine appears to be riskier in terms of portfolio diversification, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two hundred and five samples of whisky, including 170 authentic and 35 fake products, were analyzed in terms of their elemental profiles in order to distinguish them according to the parameter of their authenticity. The study of 31 elements (Ag, Al, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Sr, Te, Tl, U, V, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, P, S, Ti and Zn) was performed using the Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) and Cold Vapor-Atomic Absorption (CVAAS) techniques. Additionally, the pH values of all samples were determined by pH-meter, and their isotopic ratios of 88Sr/86Sr, 84Sr/86Sr, 87Sr/86Sr and 63Cu/65Cu were assessed, based on the number of counts by ICP-MS. As a result of conducted research, elements, such as Mn, K, P and S, were identified as markers of whisky adulteration related to the age of alcohol. The concentrations of manganese, potassium and phosphorus were significantly lower in the fake samples (which were not aged, or the aging period was much shorter than legally required), compared to the original samples (in all cases subjected to the aging process). The observed differences were related to the migration of these elements from wooden barrels to the alcohol contained in them. On the other hand, the sulfur concentration in the processed samples was much higher in the counterfeit samples than in the authentic ones. The total sulfur content, such as that of alkyl sulfides, decreases in alcohol with aging in the barrels. Furthermore, counterfeit samples can be of variable origin and composition, so they cannot be characterized as one group with identical or comparable features. Repeatedly, the element of randomness dominates in the production of these kinds of alcohols. However, as indicated in this work, the extensive elemental analysis supported by statistical tools can be helpful, especially in the context of detecting age-related adulteration of whisky. The results presented in this paper are the final part of a comprehensive study on the influence of selected factors on the elemental composition of whisky.

A total of 170 samples of whisky from 11 countries were analysed in terms of their elemental profiles. The levels of 31 elements were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS): Ag, Al, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Sr, Te, Tl, U, and V, Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) Ca, Fe, K, Mg, P, S, Ti, and Zn and Cold Vapor-Atomic Absorption (CV-AAS): Hg techniques in those alcoholic samples. A comparative analysis of elemental profiles was made on the basis of the content of chosen elements with regard to selected parameters: country of origin, type of whisky (single malt and blended) and age of products. One of the elements which clearly distinguishes single malt and blended types of whisky is copper. Single malt Scotch whisky had a uniform concentration of copper, which is significantly higher for all malt whisky samples when compared with the blended type. Analysis of samples from the USA (n = 26) and Ireland (n = 15) clearly revealed that the objects represented by the same product but originating from independent bottles (e.g., JB, JDG, BUS brands) show common elemental profiles. On the other hand, comparative analysis of Scotch whisky with respect to aging time revealed that the longer the alcohol was aged, (i.e., the longer it stayed in the barrel), the higher the content of Cu and Mn that was recorded.

Recently there has been an increased interest in characterising the rates of alcoholic fermentations. Sigmoidal models have been used to predict changes such as the rate of density decline. In this study, three published sigmoidal models were assessed and fit to industrial fermentation data. The first is the four-parameter logistic model described in the ASBC Yeast-14 method. The second model is a nested form of the four-parameter logistic function, adding an extra parameter, creating the 5-parameter logistic equation., where an additional parameter was added to allow for asymmetry. The final model is a three-parameter logistic equation which describes the change in the Apparent Degree of Fermentation with time. The three models were compared by fitting them to industrial data from Australian and Canadian lagers, American and Scottish ales and Scotch Whisky fermentations. The model fits were then compared to one another with a technique developed by Akaike and a nested F-test. The Akaike information criterion compares the models and accounts for both the goodness of fit, and the number of parameters in the model. Finally, consideration was given to the establishment of prediction bands (that enclose the area that one can be 99% sure contains the true datapoints). Calculation of these bands was "challenging" but successful as the industrial fermentation data was heteroscedastic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Featured Application: In the highly competitive market of spirit drinks, distillers are interested in creating new and interesting products. It is important to be able to evaluate flavour during the product development process. There are several sensory and analytical approaches for doing this. This paper compares three such methods, QDA, Napping and GC-MS, providing a detailed comparison of each method for the evaluation of a set of unmatured whisky spirits. This study compared the use of three sensory and analytical techniques: Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA), Napping, and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) for the assessment of flavour in nine unmatured whisky spirits produced using different yeasts. Hierarchical Multiple Factor Analysis (HMFA) showed a similar pattern of sample discrimination (RV scores: 0.895–0.927) across the techniques: spirits were mostly separated by their Alcohol by Volume (ABV). Low ABV spirits tended to have heavier flavour characteristics (feinty, cereal, sour, oily, sulphury) than high ABV spirits, which were lighter in character (fruity, sweet, floral, solventy, soapy). QDA differentiated best between low ABV spirits and GC-MS between high ABV spirits, with Napping having the lowest resolution. QDA was time-consuming but provided quantitative flavour profiles of each spirit that could be readily compared. Napping, although quicker, gave an overview of the flavour differences of the spirits, while GC-MS provided semi-quantitative ratios of 96 flavour compounds for differentiating between spirits. Ester, arenes and certain alcohols were found in higher concentrations in high ABV spirits and other alcohols and aldehydes in low ABV spirits. The most comprehensive insights on spirit flavour differences produced by different yeast strains are obtained through the application of a combination of approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims to estimate the effect of expert assessments on the prices for single malt Scotch whiskies on the investment market. Our results obtained using an original dataset combining data from Jim Murray's Whisky Bible and a web trading platform specializing in whisky investment show that the quality rating is not a powerful predictor of investor ask prices, especially when controlling for distillery and bottler reputation. This finding suggests that although the Murray score may embed information of use to unsophisticated investors, its effect on price can be outperformed by a detailed knowledge of the whisky industry. (JEL Classifications: L11, L15, Q13) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we used Chinese chestnut as the main raw material to develop a novel type of whiskey. First, 16 yeasts were isolated and identified for producing aroma using olfactory plate assay. Of these, we screened nine yeast strains based on their fermentation capacity, aroma profile, and sensory evaluation. The results demonstrated the combination of strains HN006 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and HN010 (Wickerhamomyces anomalus) provided satisfactory wine fermentation with an interesting flavor profile, as strain HN010 was highly aromatic and had elevated sensory scores with comparatively low ethanol yield, while strain HN006 had a poor flavor profile but produced the largest amount of ethanol. Subsequently, we co-cultured strains HN006 and HN010 to optimize the fermentation system. The results revealed the following optimum parameters: a mixed inoculum of 6% (v/v) at an HN006/HN010 ratio of 1:2 (v/v), a raw material ratio of 5:3:2 (chestnut: malt: glutinous rice), and yeast extract concentration of 6 g/L. Additionally, this fermentation system was successfully scaled-up to a 1000 L pilot-scale system. The results of this study showed that strains HN006 and HN010 could be used as alternatives for whiskey fermentation, as well as provided a generalized experimental scheme to assess other microorganisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reliable identification of high-value products such as whisky is vital due to rising issues of brand substitution and quality control in the industry. We have developed a novel framework that can perform whisky analysis directly from raw spectral data with no human intervention by integrating machine learning models with a portable Raman device. We demonstrate that machine learning models can achieve over 99% accuracy in brand or product identification across twenty-eight commercial samples. To demonstrate the flexibility of this approach, we utilized the same algorithms to quantify ethanol concentrations, as well as measuring methanol levels in spiked whisky samples. To demonstrate the potential use of these algorithms in a real-world environment we tested our algorithms on spectral measurements performed through the original whisky bottle. Through the bottle measurements are facilitated by a beam geometry hitherto not applied to whisky brand identification in conjunction with machine learning. Removing the need for decanting greatly enhances the practicality and commercial potential of this technique, enabling its use in detecting counterfeit or adulterated spirits and other high-value liquids. The techniques established in this paper aim to function as a rapid and non-destructive initial screening mechanism for detecting falsified and tampered spirits, complementing more comprehensive and stringent analytical methods., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2024 Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Food fraud and adulteration is a major concern in terms of economic and public health. Multivariate methods combined with spectroscopic techniques have shown promise as a novel analytical strategy for addressing issues related to food fraud that cannot be solved by the analysis of one variable, particularly in complex matrices such distilled beverages. This review describes and discusses different aspects of whisky production, and recent developments of laboratory, in field and high throughput analysis. In particular, recent applications detailing the use of vibrational spectroscopy techniques combined with data analytical methods used to not only distinguish between brand and origin of whisky but to also detect adulteration are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]