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Data from published studies and World Wide Web sources were combined to produce and test a regression model to predict Cs concentration ratios for freshwater fish species. The accuracies of predicted concentration ratios, which were computed using 1) species trophic levels obtained from random resampling of known food items and 2) K concentrations in the water for 207 fish from 44 species and 43 locations, were tested against independent observations of ratios for 57 fish from 17 species from 25 locations. Accuracy was assessed as the percent of observed to predicted ratios within factors of 2 or 3. Conservatism, expressed as the lack of under prediction, was assessed as the percent of observed to predicted ratios that were less than 2 or less than 3. The model's median observed to predicted ratio was 1.26, which was not significantly different from 1, and 50% of the ratios were between 0.73 and 1.85. The percentages of ratios within factors of 2 or 3 were 67 and 82%, respectively. The percentages of ratios that were <2 or <3 were 79 and 88%, respectively. An example for Perca fluviatilis demonstrated that increased prediction accuracy could be obtained when more detailed knowledge of diet was available to estimate trophic level., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The rates of accumulation and subsequent loss of stable cesium (¹³³Cs) by organisms at different trophic levels within plankton-based and periphyton-based food chains were measured following the addition of ¹³³Cs into a small reservoir near Aiken, South Carolina, USA. An uptake parameter u (L kg⁻¹ d⁻¹ dry mass) and a loss rate parameter k (d⁻¹) were estimated for each organism using time-series measurements of ¹³³Cs concentrations in water and biota, and these parameters were used to estimate maximum concentrations, times to maximum concentrations, and concentration ratios (C(r)). The maximum ¹³³Cs concentrations for plankton, periphyton, the insect larva Chaoborus punctipennis, which feeds on plankton, and the snail Helisoma trivolvis, which feeds on periphyton, occurred within the first 14 days following the addition, whereas the maximum concentrations for the fish species Lepomis macrochirus and Micropterus salmoides occurred after 170 days. The C(r) based on dry mass for plankton and C. punctipennis were 1220 L kg⁻¹ and 5570 L kg⁻¹, respectively, and were less than the C(r) of 8630 L kg⁻¹ for periphyton and 47,700 L kg⁻¹ for H. trivolvis. Although the C(r) differed between plankton-based and periphyton-based food chains, they displayed similar levels of biomagnification. Biomagnification was also indicated for fish where the C(r) for the mostly nonpiscivorous L. macrochirus of 22,600 L kg⁻¹ was three times less than that for mostly piscivorous M. salmoides of 71,500 L kg⁻¹. Although the C(r) for M. salmoides was greater than those for periphyton and H. trivolvis, the maximum ¹³³Cs concentrations for periphyton and H. trivolvis were greater than that for M. salmoides., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

To measure the long term retention and seasonal dynamics of an initial 4 kg addition of (133)Cs into an 11.4-ha, 157,000 m(3) reservoir (Pond 4, near Aiken, South Carolina, USA), the concentrations and inventories of (133)Cs in the water column were measured at periodical intervals for 522 days following the 1 August, 1999 release. After rapid declines in concentrations and inventories during the first 90 days, the (133)Cs concentrations in the water column declined at an average proportional rate of 0.004 d(-1). However, there were periods of less rapid and more rapid rates of declines, and these were correlated with periods of increasing and decreasing K concentrations in the water column. The decline rates were less and the K concentrations greater in the winter than in the summer. In the deeper, neighboring monomictic reservoirs of Par Pond and Pond B, a yearly cycle of increasing and decreasing (137)Cs concentrations in the water column is driven by anoxic remobilization of Cs from the sediments into a persistent summer hypolimnion. In Pond 4, whose mean depth of 1.6 m is too shallow to support a persistent anoxic hypolimnion, the pattern of yearly dynamics for K and Cs appear to be related to the accumulation and release of these elements from the extensive, seasonal macrophyte communities. The contrasting results between Pond 4 and Pond B suggest that a full appreciation of the relative importance of 1) anoxic remobilization and 2) accumulation and release by macrophytes in these systems remains to be established., (Copyright 2010. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

An uptake parameter u (Lkg(-1)d(-1)) and a loss rate parameter k (d(-1)) were estimated for the patterns of accumulation and loss of (133)Cs by three fish species following an experimental (133)Cs addition into a pond in South Carolina, USA. These u and k parameters were compared to similar estimates for fish from other experimental ponds and from lakes that received (137)Cs deposition from Chernobyl. Estimates of u from ponds and lakes declined with increasing potassium concentrations in the water column. Although loss rates were greater in the experimental ponds, the times required to reach maximum Cs concentrations in fish were similar between ponds and lakes, because ponds and lakes had similar retentions of Cs in the water column. The maximum Cs concentrations in fish were largely determined by initial Cs concentrations in the water column. These maximum concentrations in fish and the times required to reach these maxima are potentially useful indicators for assessments of risks to humans from fish consumption.

The probable occurrence and rate of foliar absorption of stable cesium (133Cs) from the water column by aquatic macrophyte species was analyzed following the addition of 133Cs into a small reservoir near Aiken, South Carolina, USA. An uptake parameter u (10(3)Lkg(-1)d(-1)) and a loss rate parameter k (d(-1)) were estimated for each species using time series of 133Cs concentrations in the water and plant tissues. Foliar uptake, as indicated by rapid increases in plant concentrations following the 133Cs addition, occurred in two floating-leaf species, Brasenia schreberi and Nymphaea odorata, and two submerged species, Myriophyllum spicatum and Utricularia inflata. These species had values of u> or =0.75 x 10(3)Lkg(-1)d(-1). Less evidence for foliar uptake was observed in three emergent species, including Typha latifolia. Ratios of u to k for B. schreberi, M. spicatum, N. odorata and U. inflata can be used to estimate concentration ratios (CR) at equilibrium, and these estimates were generally within a factor of 2 of the CR for 137Cs for these species in the same reservoir. This correspondence suggests that foliar uptake of Cs was the principal absorption mechanism for these species. Assessments of: (1) the prevalence of foliar uptake of potassium, rubidium and Cs isotopes by aquatic macrophytes and (2) the possible importance of foliar uptake of Cs in other lentic systems are made from a review of foliar uptake studies and estimation of comparable u and k values from lake studies involving Cs releases.

To document the short-term dynamics of Cs, 4 kg of (133)Cs were introduced into an 11.4-ha, 157 000 m(3) reservoir previously contaminated with (137)Cs from past reactor operations at the US Department of Energy's Savannah River Site near Aiken, South Carolina, USA. The (133)Cs addition resulted in an increase of 6.1 MBq of (137)Cs (1.9 mug (137)Cs) in the water column over the following 260 days. Possible sources for the increased (137)Cs included (1) release from the sediments, (2) release from the approximately 26 000 kg of aquatic macrophytes that occupied 80% of the reservoir, and (3) wash-in from the pond's watershed. Data are presented to indicate that release from the sediments was the principal source of the (137)Cs increase. The fraction of (137)Cs released from the sediments (0.7%) is consistent with laboratory measurements of (137)Cs desorption from neighboring ponds on the Savannah River Site.

A historical perspective is given of the current paradigm that does not explicitly protect nonhuman biota from radiation but instead relies on the concept that if dose limits are set to protect humans, then the environment is automatically protected as well. We summarize recent international questioning of this paradigm and briefly present three frameworks for protecting biota that are being considered by the U.S. Department of Energy, the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, and the International Commission on Radiological Protection. We point out a controversial component in each of the three frameworks and suggest topics that need additional research. We emphasize that to properly address radiation protection of the environment, we need to understand how effects are integrated across different levels of biological organization. We caution that the proposed use of molecular end points to estimate ecological risks from radioactive contamination is applicable only if we understand the extent of the impact that molecular damage has on individual organisms and populations of exposed biota. To accomplish the latter, enhanced collaborations are required among the traditionally separate disciplines of radiation biology and radiation ecology.

Of the natural processes that concentrate dispersed environmental contaminants, landscape fire stands out as having potential to rapidly concentrate contaminants and accelerate their redistribution. This study used rainfall simulation methods to quantify changes in concentration of a widely dispersed environmental contaminant (global fallout 137Cs) in soils and surface water runoff following a major forest fire at Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA. The 137Cs concentrations at the ground surface increased up to 40 times higher in ash deposits and three times higher for the topmost 50 mm of soil compared with pre-fire soils. Average redistribution rates were about one order of magnitude greater for burned plots, 5.96 KBq ha(-1) mm(-1) rainfall, compared with unburned plots, 0.55 KBq ha(-1) mm(-1) rainfall. The greatest surface water transport of 137Cs, 11.6 KBq ha(-1) mm(-1), occurred at the plot with the greatest amount of ground cover removal (80% bare soil) following fire. Concentration increases of 137Cs occurred during surface water erosion, resulting in enrichment of 137Cs levels in sediments by factors of 1.4 to 2.9 compared with parent soils. The elevated concentrations in runoff declined rapidly with time and cumulative precipitation occurrence and approached pre-fire levels after approximately 240 mm of rainfall. Our results provide evidence of order-of-magnitude concentration increases of a fallout radionuclide as a result of forest fire and rapid transport of radionuclides following fire that may have important implications for a wide range of geophysical, ecosystem, fire management, and risk-based issues.

Biodosimetry, the estimation of received doses by determining the frequency of radiation-induced chromosome aberrations, is widely applied in humans acutely exposed as a result of accidents or for clinical purposes, but biodosimetric techniques have not been utilized in organisms chronically exposed to radionuclides in contaminated environments. The application of biodosimetry to environmental exposure scenarios could greatly improve the accuracy, and reduce the uncertainties, of ecological risk assessments and biomonitoring studies, because no assumptions are required regarding external exposure rates and the movement of organisms into and out of contaminated areas. Furthermore, unlike residue analyses of environmental media, environmental biodosimetry provides a genetically relevant biomarker of cumulative lifetime exposure. Symmetrical chromosome translocations can impact reproductive success, and could therefore prove to be ecologically relevant as well. We describe our experience in studying aberrations in the yellow-bellied slider turtle as an example of environmental biodosimetry., (Copyright 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd.)

Concentrations of (239,240)Pu and the 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios were measured in rib samples from 55 non-occupationally exposed Colorado residents. Samples were collected at autopsy during 1975-1979 under an earlier study intended to compare plutonium levels in liver and lung of people who lived at various proximities to the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site (RFETS) near Denver. Overall, median (239,240)Pu concentrations from rib samples were 100, 80, and 57 microBq g(-1) ash weight for area locations A, B, and C, respectively. Area A encompassed subjects who lived within 25 km of RFETS, area B was between 25 and 50 km from RFETS, and area C included all of Colorado outside 50 km from the site and east of the continental divide. The corresponding median plutonium skeletal burdens estimated for these area locations were 146, 93, and 71 mBq, respectively. A statistically significant difference was noted only between plutonium concentrations in male rib samples and their skeletal burdens from area A compared to area C. However, based on a regression analysis of all study subjects, distance from RFETS was not statistically correlated to plutonium rib concentrations or skeletal burdens in this sample. Overall, median 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios were 0.20, 0.18, and 0.17 for areas A, B, and C, respectively. Although higher (239,240)Pu concentrations and skeletal burdens were indicated in area A males than area C males, we cannot conclude that RFETS releases may have caused this difference. The decreasing trends in the 240Pu/239Pu ratios with distance from RFETS are contrary with such a conclusion and strongly indicate that the material was primarily global fallout rather than weapons-grade plutonium that was processed at RFETS. Furthermore, there are other plausible explanations for the differences observed between area A and C residents. These include a decreasing trend in global fallout from the Rocky Mountain foothills eastward, smoking history differences, sample selection criteria, and possibly other unidentified factors. Nevertheless, estimated levels of total plutonium in this sample of Colorado residents were low and within the range of reported literature values for general, world-wide populations.

This paper reviews examples of how measurements of global fallout in the environment and related tracer radionuclides have been used to enhance our basic knowledge of biogeochemical processes and food-chain pathways. Because it is these fundamental, natural processes that control the transport and accumulation of such trace substances in the environment, direct measurements of trace substances over time and space reveal strong insights into these processes. The necessity to monitor global fallout transport, although largely motivated by human health concerns, gave rise to a plethora of new information about plants, animals, and natural and agricultural ecosystems and how they function. This review provides a small selection of examples in the areas of plant and animal physiology, productivity and energy transfer in food chains, biogeochemical cycles of certain elements and their analogues, feeding relationships and movements of organisms, and the agriculture-based human food chain. It is concluded that if society is to cope successfully with continued growth of the human population and resource consumption, more knowledge is still required about these fundamental processes. The use of radiotracers can contribute greatly to this need, but current funding priorities, societal attitudes, and onerous regulations on the use of radioactivity may continue to limit such applications.

Over 50% of the wells in the Nambe region of northern New Mexico exceed the US Environmental Protection Agency's recommended drinking water standard of 20 microg l(-1) for 238U; the highest in the area was measured at 1,200 microg U l(-1). Uranium uptake was estimated in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), squash (Cucurbita pepo), lettuce (Lactuca scarriola), and radish (Raphanus sativus) irrigated with Nambe well water containing <1, 150, 500, and 1,200 microg U l(-1). Plant uptake and human dose and toxicity associated with ingestion of water and produce and inhalation of irrigated soil related to gardening activities were evaluated. Uranium concentration in plants increased linearly with increasing U concentration in irrigation water, particularly in lettuce and radish. The estimated total committed effective dose for 70 years of maximum continuous exposure, via the three pathways to well water containing 1,200 microg U l(-1), was 0.17 mSv with a corresponding kidney concentration of 0.8 microg U g(-1) kidney.

Infrequent, high-impact events such as wildfires, droughts, biological shifts, floods, and mechanical disturbances can greatly change land surfaces, including vegetative cover and soil characteristics, which in turn can trigger high rates of hydrologic erosion and associated transport of sediments and sediment-sorbed contaminants. Where persistent soil contamination exists, infrequent mobilization of contaminants may dominate in determining long-term risks to human and ecological receptors. Among these infrequent events, fire stands out as having the capacity to cause large increases in sediment transport. This study measured runoff, sediment yield, and mobility of sediment-sorbed contamination (137Cs) on burned and unburned plots at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, New Mexico (WIPP), and the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site, Colorado (RFETS). Results showed that 137Cs transport from burned plots was up to 22 times greater than that from unburned plots at WIPP and 4 times greater at RFETS. Associated runoff was up to 12 times greater on burned plots at WIPP and sediment yields up to 6 times greater. Further, 137Cs concentrations in transported sediments were enriched compared with parent soils (expressed as enrichment ratio) by a factor of 2.3 at WIPP, and 1.3 at RFETS. However, enrichment ratios were not significantly different in sediments from burned and unburned plots. Our results provide new data on the effects of fire on the transport of sediment-sorbed contaminants, and demonstrate that rare events such as fire can greatly increase contaminant mobility.

Using a whole-chromosome FISH painting probe we previously developed for chromosome 1 of the yellow-bellied slider turtle (Trachemys scripta), we investigated the dose-rate effect for radiation-induced symmetrical translocations in T. scripta fibroblasts and lymphocytes. The dose rate below which no reduction in effect per unit dose is observed with further dose protraction was approximately 23 cGy h(-1). We estimated the whole-genome spontaneous background level of complete, apparently simple symmetrical translocations in T. scripta lymphocytes to be approximately 1.20 x 10(-3)/cell projected from aberrations occurring in chromosome 1. Similar spontaneous background levels reported for humans are some 6- to 25-fold higher, ranging from about 6 x 10(-3) to 3.4 x 10(-2) per cell. This relatively low background level for turtles would be a significant advantage for resolution of effects at low doses and dose rates. We also chronically irradiated turtles over a range of doses from 0-8 Gy delivered at approximately 5.5 cGy h(-1) and constructed a lymphocyte dose-response curve for complete, apparently simple symmetrical translocations suitable for use with animals chronically exposed to radiation in contaminated environments. The best-fitting calibration curve (not constrained through the zero dose estimate) was of the form Y(as) = c + aD + bD(2), where Y(as) was the number of apparently simple symmetrical translocations per cell, D was the dose (Gy), a = (0.0058 +/- 0.0009), b = (-0.00033 +/- 0.00011), and c = (0.0015 +/- 0.0013). With additional whole-chromosome probes to improve sensitivity, environmental biodosimetry using stable chromosome translocations could provide a practical and genetically relevant measurement end point for ecological risk assessments and biomonitoring programs.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization of a whole chromosome 1-specific probe from the yellow-bellied slider turtle (Trachemys scripta) to cells from four other species of turtle ranging from a desert tortoise to a loggerhead sea turtle resulted in specific and exclusive hybridization to chromosome 1 in all five species. Previous observations of conservation in the giemsa banding pattern and chromosome morphology and number among turtles are thus extended to the DNA sequence level, revealing a cytogenetic stability of chromosome 1 in these turtles during the past 66-144 million years. This contrasts with the situation for various hominoid species where, in many instances, extensive chromosomal rearrangements have been reported in one third of that time period. Our probe, which was prepared by microdissecting whole chromosomes from embryonic T. scripta fibroblasts and amplifying using DOP-PCR, is the first report of a whole-chromosome FISH probe for any reptile.

Nonhuman organisms are being exposed to ionizing radiations at radionuclide-contaminated sites around the world. Direct methods are seldom available for measuring biologically relevant doses received by these organisms. Here we extend biological dosimetry techniques, which are much better developed for humans and a few other mammalian species, to a nonmammalian species. Turtles were chosen because a long-lived animal would best serve the need for low-level, chronic exposure conditions. We chose the yellow-bellied slider turtle (Trachemys scripta), which is known to have a maximum life span of at least 22 years. As reported elsewhere, we first isolated an embryonic fibroblast cell line and constructed whole-chromosome-specific DNA libraries for chromosome 1 by microdissection and PCR. A FISH painting probe was prepared and used to establish a dose-response curve for ionizing radiation-induced chromosome interchange aberrations in turtle fibroblasts. This was compared to the dose response for human fibroblasts treated under similar conditions in our laboratory. With respect to induction of chromosome interchange aberrations, human fibroblasts were approximately 1.7 times more sensitive than the T. scripta fibroblasts. To the extent that symmetrical interchanges are persistent over long periods, this approach could eventually provide a measure of the integrated lifetime dose these organisms receive from radionuclides in their environment and give a measure of the extent of relevant genetic damage over that time.

Optimization of culture techniques for turtle and other reptilian lymphocytes is essential for facilitating cytogenetic and immunologic research for these animals. We examined a variety of conditions and parameters relevant to turtle lymphocyte culture including: different mitogenic agents, alone and in combination; lymphocyte separation protocols; culture volume; time required to stimulate lymphocytes to mitosis; importance of humidity and gas exchange in culture incubation; suitability of different culture media; effects of varying serum concentrations; ability of interleukin-2 (IL-2) to stimulate lymphocyte growth and prevent apoptosis; and feasibility of inducing premature chromosome condensation. The best conditions of those we studied for obtaining mitotic cells were (1) the combined use of phytohemagglutinin-M form (2%) and lipopolysaccharides (0.55 microg/ml), (2) the use of 5% autologous turtle serum (as opposed to fetal bovine serum), and (3) collection of mitotic cells around 96 hours after mitogenic stimulation. Human, recombinant IL-2 did not increase the fraction of lymphocytes in mitosis over the range of concentrations tested and calyculin A was ineffective at inducing premature chromosome condensation in turtle lymphocytes over the range of concentrations tested. This test regime provides a guideline for determination of appropriate lymphocyte culture conditions in turtles and other reptiles.

Large and small-scale spatial variations in natural ambient background radiation dose rates in Colorado were investigated at 1,150 specific locations with particular attention to 40 of the more populated areas along the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. Total dose rates (including cosmic and terrestrial components) in Front Range communities below 2,000 m elevation averaged 135 nGy h(-1). Terrestrial dose rates had a coefficient of variation of 17%. Communities above 2,000 m had a mean total dose rate of 196 nGy h(-1), and a terrestrial dose rate coefficient of variation of 17%. Across all Front Range communities, the coefficient of variation for terrestrial dose rates was 22%. Within individual communities, coefficient of variation values for terrestrial dose rates ranged from 3 to 21%. Smaller-scale spatial variability (to within a few meters) was relatively small (coefficient of variation values generally ranged from 3 to 7%). A significant linear relationship (r2 = 0.83) between the size of area surveyed (km2) and coefficient of variation value for terrestrial dose rates was found. West of the Continental Divide, the terrestrial component accounted for roughly 60% of total measured dose rates, while east of the Continental Divide, where enriched granitic source rocks and associated soils are prevalent, the terrestrial component generally accounted for two-thirds or more of total dose rates.

An assessment of current levels of 239Pu in individuals living near the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site was conducted. Long-term residents of areas adjacent to the Site, as well as people living well beyond any expected influence of the site, provided urine samples, which were analyzed by fission track analysis for the levels of 239Pu. The Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site vicinity participants were selected for maximum possible exposure to environmental plutonium by virtue of residence location, length of residence, age, and outdoor lifestyle. The mean 239Pu excretion rate in urine estimated for the entire Rocky Flats group was 1.1 microBq d(-1), in contrast to that estimated for the background group (0.85 microBq d(-1)). The estimated median 239Pu excretion rate for the Rocky Flats group was 1.1 microBq d(-1), compared to 0.54 microBq d(-1) for the background group. Both parametric and non-parametric tests indicated that these differences were not statistically significant (alpha = 0.05). Measured levels of 239Pu in urine from the Rocky Flats group were low and well within the range of reported "background" values, indicating small doses and low health risks. The fission track analysis technique may not be sufficiently accurate or precise to allow definitive comparisons between two groups of subjects with near-background levels of 239Pu in urine.

Gamma spectroscopy measurements were used to estimate concentrations of 241Am and 137Cs in soil profiles to depths of 21 cm at on-site and off-site locations around the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site and at regional background locations east of the Front Range between Colorado's borders with New Mexico and Wyoming. Concentrations of these radionuclides were compared with concentrations of (239,240)Pu in the same samples. Concentrations of 241Am in soil from depths of 0 to 3 cm decreased in an easterly direction from more than 5.3 kBq kg(-1) near the 903 pad to background levels of 1.3 Bq kg(-1) 5 to 7 km away at a rate that was nearly proportional to the inverse square of distance. Deposits of 137Cs were ubiquitous, averaging 0.12 kBq kg(-1) in soil from depths of 0 to 3 cm, but were unevenly distributed around Rocky Flats and the regional background locations. Deviations from the uniform exponential rate at which soil concentrations of 137Cs typically decreased with depth, -0.25 cm(-1) at undisturbed sites, enabled us to determine that about 10% of our sampling sites had been disturbed by erosion, tillage, or other factors. The mean rate at which (239,240)Pu decreased with depth was about the same, -0.23 cm(-1), throughout the study area. Soil concentrations of 241Am decreased with depth at a similar mean rate of -0.22 cm(-1) at locations close to the 903 pad where measurements were robust. Ratios between 241Am or (239,240)Pu and 137Cs proved more useful for delineating the extent and pattern of contamination from Rocky Flats than did activity concentrations in soil.

Information on environmental levels and transport processes of natural and anthropogenic radioactivity, although plentiful, is widely scattered, and relatively few attempts have been made to summarize and synthesize this information. Furthermore, most experimental observations and experiments on environmental radioactivity have been designed for documentation or testing of specific hypotheses, rather than for providing key information for transport simulation models or on fundamental processes which such models seek to represent. This paper examines three basic questions, namely (1) what is the current state of the science of radioecology?; (2) how well is this science being incorporated into predictive models?; and (3) how well are the models being used to guide and improve the science? These discussions will be preceded by a brief description of the field of radioecology, and comments on its relevance to other sciences as well as to major societal problems stemming from environmental releases of radioactivity. In addition to assessing the current state of the science and its use in predictive models, specific ideas for improving both the science and its associated models will be advanced. These ideas fall under the categories of (1) environmental transport processes and model parameters, (2) estimating exposure and dose to human and ecological receptors, and (3) dose-effect relationships for plants and animals.

The horizontal and depth distribution of plutonium was measured in soil east of the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site (formerly the Rocky Flats Plant) near Denver, Colorado, during 1992-1994. The study area was centered on the eastern plume of plutonium contamination and included transects extending from 0.2 km east of the primary origin of the contamination (the 903 Pad) to distances of up to 19 km northeast, east, southeast and south-southeast of the 903 Pad. Soil was collected in 3 cm layers down to 21 cm at exponentially increasing distances along the four transects. Plutonium concentrations decreased rapidly with depth, distance from the 903 Pad, and angle from due east. Depth distributions were independent of distance and angle from the 903 Pad, and our profile model can be used to adjust to a common basis, historical measurements made from sampling to different depths. Based on a total of approximately 1,400 independent measurements, mathematical functions were developed to describe the distance, directional, and depth relationships. These equations, combined with soil density and rock measurements, provided a new method to estimate the plutonium concentration or total deposition per unit area anywhere within the study area. Total deposition per unit area measurements at 50 sites provided an independent test of the model's predictive accuracy. Sampling coefficients of variation based on replicate samples at the main sampling locations averaged 33%, but ranged from 12 to 98%. The analytical measurement coefficient of variation averaged 8%. Mean 0-3 cm soil concentrations of (239,240)Pu among 10 Front Range "background" and 11 community locations near Rocky Flats were 2.1 and 2.3 Bq kg(-1), respectively.

Total 239,240Pu and the 240Pu:239Pu atom ratio were measured in soil samples from around the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site (RFETS) during 1992-1994. Mass isotopic data provided a sensitive technique to resolve low levels of RFETS 239,240Pu superimposed on plutonium from global fallout. Concentrations of 239,240Pu within this sample set ranged from 1.1 Bq kg(-1) offsite to 57 Bq kg(-1) onsite, and the 240Pu:239Pu atom ratio increased from 0.055 onsite to 0.123 at approximately 19 km east of the RFETS boundary. The relationship between 24OPu:239Pu atom ratios and distance indicated that a measurable RFETS contribution may have extended to > or = 19 km offsite in the easterly direction. Although the RFETS contribution to total plutonium at the offsite locations ranged from 24-90%, the overall inventory was relatively small. Total inventory estimates, for one transect, based on 239,240Pu and from 240Pu:239Pu atom ratio measurements were not significantly different.

Historical experiments and observations in radioactively contaminated environments have documented radiation impacts on natural plant communities and animal populations. General findings from these studies are reviewed. Despite much information on the response of individual organisms to radiation in the laboratory, the database is more limited and the interpretations more complex for natural populations and communities exposed to radionuclides. These complications are discussed as they pertain to plants and animals in natural environments. Paradigms concerning the recovery of radiation-damaged communities and ecosystems, and areas of needed research are discussed.

This paper summarizes individual and collective dose estimates for the internal organs of hypothetical yet representative residents of selected communities that received measurable fallout from nuclear detonations at the Nevada Test Site. The doses, which resulted from ingestion of local and regional food products contaminated with over 20 radionuclides, were estimated with use of the PATHWAY food-chain-transport model to provide estimates of central tendency and uncertainty. The thyroid gland received much higher doses than other internal organs and tissues. In a very few cases, infants might have received thyroid doses in excess of 1 Gy, depending on location, diet, and timing of fallout. 131I was the primary thyroid dose contributor, and fresh milk was the main exposure pathway. With the exception of the thyroid, organ doses from the ingestion pathway were much smaller (< 3%) than those from external gamma exposure to deposited fallout. Doses to residents living closest to the Nevada Test Site were contributed mainly by a few fallout events; doses to more distantly located people were generally smaller, but a greater number of events provided measurable contributions. The effectiveness of different fallout events in producing internal organ doses through ingestion varied dramatically with seasonal timing of the test, with maximum dose per unit fallout occurring for early summer depositions when milk cows were on pasture and fresh, local vegetables were used. Within specific communities, internal doses differed by age, sex, and lifestyle. Collective internal dose estimates for specific geographic areas are provided.

The distribution and behavior of 241 Am and 239,240 Pu in soils from the buffer zone of the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site have been investigated. Concentrations of both radionuclides decreased at similar rates with soil depth. More than 80% of the total inventory of both contaminants was found in the upper 9 cm of the soils with over 50% of the inventory residing in the top 3 cm. Comparison with earlier studies indicate that the plutonium depth profile has not changed significantly over the last 25 y. The inventories of 241 Am and 239,240 Pu decreased with distance from the 903 Pad (a former waste storage site) according to a power function, and the plume extended mainly toward the east. The lateral movement of the two contaminants away from the 903 Pad was not significantly different. The median activity ratio of 241 Am: 239,240 Pu ranged from 17 to 19% and was independent of sampling location and soil depth. This observation provided further evidence that the movement of both contaminants is indistinguishable in the study area. Because of the strong correlation between the two radionuclides, 241 Am concentrations can then be used to infer 239,240 Pu by counting the 241 Am via gamma spectroscopy.

Mean concentrations and plant:soil concentration ratios of 137Cs were determined for six vegetable crops grown on an exposed, contaminated lakebed of a former reactor cooling reservoir in South Carolina. Each crop species was grown with or without potassium fertilizer. Selected crops were also irrigated with either reservoir water or groundwater. Subsamples of crops were prepared for human consumption before analysis to determine the extent of any loss. Plant:soil concentration ratios (dry basis) ranged from 0.22 to 6.82, values which were substantially higher than those used in generic assessment models. While there was no statistically significant effect of irrigation source or culinary preparation, the effect of potassium-fertilizer was dramatic. In many cases, concentrations of 137Cs in those plants receiving potassium were less than half of the concentrations in plants that did not receive potassium. Significant differences among species and plant parts for 137Cs concentrations were observed. Dose/risk calculations for the ingestion of these vegetables by a hypothetical 30-y resident indicates the possibility of a lifetime fatal cancer risk well-above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's regulatory guideline of 10(-4).

Agroecosystems can become contaminated by atmospherically released radionuclides. The subsequent concentrations of radionuclides in foods are dependent on numerous environmental, physiological, and management factors. We compared four approaches for estimating the relative importance of several of these factors in determining concentrations of 1 3 1 I and 1 3 7 Cs in milk. A series of sensitivity analyses with Monte Carlo and full-factorial sampling designs was conducted on the PATHWAY model, which simulates radionuclide transport through an agroecosystem. Sensitivity of time-integrated concentrations in milk was estimated as a function of the time of year that fallout was deposited and as a function of time following a spring deposition. The dominant parameters affecting time-integrated concentrations of 1 3 1 I in milk were the initial fraction of radionuclides deposited on vegetation, timing and amount of pasture consumption, and the production rate of milk. For time-integrated concentrations of the longer-lived 1 3 7 Cs in milk, resuspension was a dominant parameter and pasture use was less important. The sampling designs were compared by ranking the parameters to which the model output is sensitive. The three sampling designs based on parameter variances produced sets of ranks that were similar to each other but differed from the ranking produced by the sampling design based on parameter magnitude. The results indicate which data are most crucial for real-time calculations following an accident and how subsequent dose from ingestion can be most effectively reduced, provide insight into model behavior, and help prioritize future research. This paper demonstrates the importance of variance-based sensitivity analysis., (© 1992 by the Ecological Society of America.)

Milk is a major source for ingestion of several radionuclides, particularly when it is produced from fresh forage. Estimation of radionuclide ingestion via milk from Nevada Test Site fallout events in the 1950s required information on the sources of milk, feeding practices for cows, and elapsed time between milking and consumption for various geographic areas. These data were essential input to the food-chain model, PATHWAY. A data base was compiled from personal interviews. Milk sources included private cows, local dairies, and regional plants that collected from and distributed to wide geographic areas. Estimates of the contribution of each source were made for communities in a nine-state area. Pasture seasons varied from 3 to 6 mo. Pasture use varied from zero to 80% of the cows' diet. Pasture use declined during the 1950s, as did the number of family cows and local dairy plants. Regional distributors captured a larger portion of the market, and improved technologies increased the shelf life of milk. These factors tended to reduce the human intake of fallout radionuclides from milk in the latter part of the 1950s.

Populations of barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) nested seasonally near the Test Reactor Area (TRA) radioactive leaching ponds on the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL). These birds utilized leaching pond arthropods as a food source and contaminated mud for nest construction and thus accumulated radioactive materials. Over 20 fission and activation products were detected in immature and adult TRA birds. The radionuclide exhibiting the highest mean concentration in adult birds was 51Cr, with 16.1 Bq g-1 (435 pCi g-1). Mean concentrations of detectable radionuclides were used to calculate internal dose rates. Approximately 72% of the total dose rate of 219 microGy d-1 (22 mrad d-1) for adult birds was due to 24Na. Swallow thyroids contained a mean 131I concentration of 3330 Bq g-1. An average dose rate to the thyroid was calculated to be 4300 microGy d-1 or 450 mGy (45 rad) for the entire breeding season. Data from LiF-700 thermoluminescent dosimeters in swallow nests indicated that average dose rates were 840 microGy d-1 for eggs and 2200 Gy d-1 for nestlings, for a total of 54 mGy (5.4 rad) during the nesting period. The breeding biology and growth rate were investigated for TRA swallows and comparison group located 15 km and 100 km away. Total mortality rates for the comparison group vs. 1976 and 1977 TRA populations were not found to be significantly (p greater than 0.9) different. Nonlinear regression was used to fit individual growth curves and estimate parameters using a logistic model. First clutch TRA swallows were found to have a significantly (p less than 0.05) lower mean growth rate compared to either the first clutch comparison group or the second clutch of TRA birds. Mean asymptotic weights achieved by immature TRA birds were also found to be significantly (p less than 0.05) lower than those achieved by comparison group birds. Both growth rate and asymptotic weights for TRA birds were within the normal range reported in the literature. The cause for the statistical difference in growth rate between the comparison group and TRA first clutch populations could not be determined.

Ground concentrations of 226Ra and total alpha activity as a function of soil depth and distance from an acidic U mill tailings pile were measured, as well as soil pH, sulfate, chloride, and conductivity. Contamination decreased with increasing soil depth and distance from the source. Most of the measured parameters were indistinguishable from background after a distance of 3.3 km from the tailings impoundment. The highest concentrations of all contaminants were contained in the particles less than 0.045 mm in diameter at the soil surface (0-0.6 cm). This fraction represents only 4% to 10% of the total soil mass. Surface soil particles greater than 2.0 mm contained higher concentrations of all contaminants than the intermediate-size (0.045-2.0 mm) fraction. Aggregate formation of the greater than 2.0-mm fraction from small particles or preferential erosion and transport of the tailings sand fractions were proposed as possible explanations. The significant correlations between various measurements were soil 226Ra vs. total alpha activity, sulfate concentration, and conductivity. The latter two parameters are indicative of sulfuric acid leached tailings. The sulfate concentration appeared to be a sensitive and easily measured indicator of tailings contamination and migration into the soil profile. Furthermore, sulfate may be used to delineate acidic U tailings from other sources of contamination (U ore dust, yellowcake, naturally elevated U and Ra) in the environment. Actual site measurements for surface 226Ra concentration were approximately twice the MILDOS computer code prediction.

Design and construction techniques are described for a 1.6 ha experimental reclamation plot consisting of a 1-m-thick slab of uranium mill tailings covered with various depths of overburden. A passive, activated charcoal device was developed and used for measurements of Rn flux at the soil surface. Observations on Rn flux vs overburden depth indicated that tailings covered with 1.5 m of revegetated or 0.3 m of bare overburden had Rn exhalation rates comparable to background. Vegetated subplots exhibited a significantly higher (often an order of magnitude) flux than the bare subplots. A positive correlation was observed between precipitation quantities and Rn flux.