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International audience; Sewage systems are a vital part of the urban infrastructure in most cities. They provide drainage, which protects public health, prevents the flooding of property and protects the water environment around urban areas. On some occasions sewers will overflow into the water environment during heavy rain potentially causing unacceptable impacts from releases of untreated sewage into the environment. In typical Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies of urban wastewater systems (UWS), average dry-weather conditions are modelled while wet-weather flows from UWS, presenting a high temporal variability, are not currently accounted for. In this context, the loads from several storm events could be important contributors to the impact categories freshwater eutrophication and ecotoxicity. In this study we investigated the contributions of these wet-weather-induced discharges relative to average dry-weather conditions in the life cycle inventory for UWS. In collaboration with the Paris public sanitation service (SIAAP) and Observatory of Urban Pollutants (OPUR) program researchers, this work aimed at identifying and comparing contributing flows from the UWS in the Paris area by a selection of routine wastewater parameters and priority pollutants. This collected data is organized according to archetypal weather days during a reference year. Then, for each archetypal weather day and its associated flows to the receiving river waters (Seine), the parameters of pollutant loads (statistical distribution of concentrations and volumes) were determined. The resulting inventory flows (i.e. the potential loads from the UWS) were used as LCA input data to assess the associated impacts. This allowed investigating the relative importance of episodic wet-weather versus “continuous” dry-weather loads with a probabilistic approach to account for pollutant variability within the urban flows. The analysis at the scale of one year showed that storm events are significant contributors to the impacts of freshwater eutrophication and ecotoxicity compared to those arising from treated effluents. At the rain event scale the wet-weather contributions to these impacts are even more significant, accounting for example for up to 88% of the total impact on freshwater ecotoxicity. This also allowed investigating and discussing the ecotoxicity contribution of each class of pollutants among the broad range of inventoried substances. Finally, with such significant contributions of pollutant loads and associated impacts from wet-weather events, further research is required to better include temporally-differentiated emissions when evaluating eutrophication and ecotoxicity. This will provide a better understanding of how the performance of an UWS system affects the receiving environment for given local weather conditions.

Wet weather discharges from urban drainage systems (CSO - Combined Sewer Overflows and outlets from separate systems) can be important contributors to the overall pollutant loads from urban areas into natural surface waters. Given the logistical difficulties in continuously monitoring these discharges, dynamic simulation models have been employed since the 1970s to estimate the discharged pollutant loads. The uncertainty of these model outputs have been widely investigated by the research community during the last decades.Following the requirement of the EU Water Framework Directive and related legislation, the Danish Environmental Protection Agency (DK-EPA) reports annual discharges of traditional macro pollutants (N, P, Organic matter - NPO) from point sources. There are currently almost 5,000 CSOs and about 14,000 separate outlets in a 43,000 km2 country with 5.8 million inhabitants. Data for all these discharge points are provided by the 98 Danish municipalities and fed into a national database, which has been described as “a good or excellent knowledge base” based on a review of the information on wet-weather discharges in the EU Member States (Moreira et al., 2016). All the reported data are based on the results of model simulations, where calculated discharged volumes are simply multiplied by fixed pollutant concentrations.To encourage the reduction of pollution from wet-weather discharges, the option of implementing a tax on NPO loads to supplement the taxation of emissions from WWTP is currently evaluated. The purpose is both to decrease the emissions from wet weather emissions in general and to avoid sub-optimization by WWTP operators to reduce inlet flows during peak flows, which in reality increases the direct emissions from the sewer systems via CSOs.This work presents the outcomes of an analysis that was initiated by the DK-EPA to evaluate the uncertainty of the current model estimations of NPO loads from wet weather discharges. We first analysed the possible sources of uncertainty based on literature review, and then surveyed the modelling practices followed by the municipalities/water utilities leading to their reported emissions. The analysis showed many very unlikely reported results with uncertainties and biases that by far exceeded what should be possible. Based on the outcomes of this analysis, the resulting reactions from the public when realizing how uncertain the reported data were, and the follow-up action taken by the DK-EPA, we propose a roadmap to increase robustness of model results and favour a more widespread and confident inclusion of uncertainty analysis in common practice.

Combined sewage is a mixture of domestic sewage and stormwater runoff. Combined sewage is typically conveyed away from urban areas through underground sewer systems and treated at wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). However, during medium and large storms the underground sewer systems are overloaded and, to protect the city assets from uncontrolled flooding, several emergency outlets are built along the network. These outlets, denoted as combined sewer overflows, ensure that excess water is discharged into nearby streams and other surface waters during periods of overloading. Similar structures are located at WWTPs to divert any flows exceeding the maximum treatment capacity of the plant (the so-called bypass flows). On an annual basis only a minor fraction of the total combined sewage volume is discharged through these structures, but during very extreme storms the magnitude of wet discharges can result in a manifold flow increase to the overall river flow compared to dry weather conditions. Together with emissions from separate stormwater systems, these emissions are denoted as wet weather discharges.Wet weather discharges were studied intensively both nationally and internationally in the period from 1975–2000. It was recognized that especially emissions from combined sewage during wet weather heavily impacted small creeks and lakes (Eriksson et al., 2007a; Kjølholt et al., 2001). Large measurement campaigns were initiated to quantify these emissions and to establish causal relationships between the emissions and impacts. Impacts were often divided into physical changes (erosion, deposition), aesthetical pollution, eutrophication, pathogenic pressure, oxygen depletion, toxic and/or xenobiotic components, and changes in the ecosystem (community dynamics) within and around the surface water.The implementation of related environmental legislation in Denmark and across the EU during the period 1987–2000 mainly focused on continuous emissions. Construction of wastewater treatment plants for industrial emissions, as well as domestic sewage has reduced the annual loadings to surface waters substantially during the last decades. The enactment of the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/CE), however, moved the focus from single discharge points to a more holistic evaluation of the ecological status of the receiving water body. Although not directly addressed, intermittent discharges play an important role in affecting the overall quality of the receiving water body. Some surface waters have clearly improved their status thanks to the implementation of these environmental legislations and the construction of treatment plants, while other surface waters still struggle to achieve the desired quality standard.In general, the following types of measures are considered to further improve the chemical and/or ecological status:• Reduction of emissions from continuous sources (e.g. waste water treatment plants, industrial emissions, agriculture).• Reduction of emissions from intermittent (e.g. wet weather) sources.• Change in land use and/or banning of specific compounds in the area.• Change in (base) flow of surface water.• Biomanipulation of the aquatic ecosystem to favour its transition to a better ecological status.• Changes in hydromorphological (physical) conditions (river aeration, re-meandering, etc).Furthermore, urban areas are affected by processes that are intensifying the pressure on receiving water bodies caused by wet-weather discharges. These processes include increasing urbanization and subsequently impermeabilization of existing urban areas, which lead to a rise in the runoff flows and volumes. Changes in rainfall patterns caused by climate change can also contribute to more frequent and/or greater wet-weather discharges. These changes might contribute to deteriorate the current status of receiving water bodies, requiring additional measures.This report revisits the importance of wet weather discharges, notably combined sewer overflows, in relation to the goal of achieving good chemical and ecological status of surface waters. The report mainly focuses on the discharges of ammonium/ammonia, organic matter, and the resulting oxygen depletion, as based on a review of the existing scientific literature, they cause the most evident negative impacts on the water bodies, and it is possible to quantify cause-effect relationships between discharges and the status of the receiving water body.• Chapter 2 defines all the elements of the integrated urban water system that are considered in the report, and outlines our understanding of how the different elements interact, which may affect the chemical and ecological status of the receiving water body as a consequence of wet weather discharges.• Chapter 3 discusses our current understanding of the pollutants discharged through wet weather discharges, providing an overview of existing measurements and comparing them to environmental quality standards for good chemical status.• Chapter 4 describes the indicators that are used to evaluate the impacts of wet weather discharges on the ecological status of the receiving water body. A specific focus is given to identifying a link between insufficient ecological status and existing stressors, including combined sewer overflows.• Chapter 5 takes a holistic perspective by exploring our understanding of the causal relationships existing between wet weather emissions and good ecological status, including stress-factors affecting the ecological status other than wet weather discharges.• Chapter 6 describes the state-of-the art in relation to the monitoring of water quality (both at discharge points and the receiving water body).• Chapter 7 provides an overview of current regulation approaches for overflow discharges and water quality criteria at the international level.• Chapter 8 illustrates the different modelling approaches that can be used as tools to interpret the integrated measurements coming from monitoring programs, and thus to support future decision-making (i.e. next generation regulations).• Chapter 9 then proposes a procedure to establish operational guidelines for the regulation of wet weather discharges from urban areas.