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The vision of advanced information technologies to provide intelligent driving assistance and automation is currently being reconciled with humans operating these technologies in complex, real-time environments where sometimes unpredicted situations need to be mastered under time pressure. Could automation technologies be designed such that humans can collaborate with them more quickly and effectively to solve the Unpredicted? We investigate the utility of computational Human Mental Models for Engineering (HMMEs) toward developing automation systems that are more similar to human behavior. We validate and compare an HMME with a control model for a basic steering task and compare them both with driving data from 16 human drivers in a driving simulator. We report on the observed characteristics of the HMME to support multi-tasking, graceful degradation, and multi-sensory driver state integration.

Connected vehicles allow to update the software (SW) running on their integrated electronic control units (ECUs) over-the-air. Such updates are complex procedures that involve several steps, such as the authentication with a remote device, the secure and reliable wireless transfer of the new binary, as well as its installation and verification on the target ECU. Each of these aspects affects the efficiency of the entire SW update process, and it is important to evaluate the impact of different solutions on the functionality of a vehicle and to compare their performance on real hardware. In this paper we present CESAR, a configurable testbed infrastructure that allows to evaluate the efficiency of an automotive SW update system in a highly automated way. CESAR allows to specify different update mechanisms, security configurations, wireless protocols used for the data transfer, and to carefully define the scenario of interest (i.e., pin down the number of wireless vehicle interfaces, the network topology, and the target ECU). Furthermore, CESAR can be used to measure the efficiency of a SW update on real hardware, and to derive insights about the weaknesses of a system under test or about the interaction of a specific SW with a given ECU.

Future vehicles will be wirelessly connected to nearby vehicles, to the road infrastructure and to the Internet in order to enable new comfort features, safety functions and a number of new vehicle-specific services. The latter will include a fast, secure, and reliable way to remotely diagnose and reconfigure a vehicle as well as to install new software on the electronic control units integrated in a vehicle. Such wireless software updates are beneficial for both automotive OEMs and customers, as they allow to enable new features of the vehicle remotely and to fix software bugs by installing a new software version over the air. Wireless diagnostics and software updates are required in several stages of a vehicle's lifetime: from the manufacturing stage on the assembly line and the maintenance in a workshop to the remote download of up-to-date software directly by the car owner. To support this process over a whole vehicle's lifetime, a generic framework is needed. In this paper we propose a generic framework enabling secure and efficient wireless automotive SW updates and hence supporting a vehicle's whole lifetime. We describe the IEEE 802.11s network used as wireless medium to interconnect vehicles and diagnostic devices in a reliable, trustworthy and fast way and propose a dedicated cross-layer security concept applying strong authentication as well as encryption mechanisms.

Progress monitoring and assessment of objectives are a challenging task for large, complex research, technology development and innovation (RTDI) projects comprising dozens of partners and different technical domains. It is difficult for project management, project partners and funding authorities to keep an overview whether defined high-level goals are adequately covered in the project innovations. This paper presents DEWI-Frame, a novel consistent mathematical-logical assessment and monitoring framework that has been developed in the course of the ARTEMIS Joint Undertaking project Dependable Embedded Wireless Infrastructure (DEWI). The main innovation in the proposed assessment framework is focused on the two-dimensional assessment of i) technological progress aligned with Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs), ii) the project objectives assessment and iii) the consolidation of these assessment results. The methodology applied within DEWI-Frame can be tailored to be used in a variety of RTDI projects with an easy parameterisation of scaling factors. DEWI-Frame is equally applicable for technology and products as well as methods as targeted results in RTDI projects.

Complexity in modern vehicles has increased dramatically during the last years due to new features and applications. Modern vehicles are connected to the Internet as well as to other vehicles in close proximity and to the environment for different novel comfort services and safety-related applications. Enabling such services and applications requires wireless interfaces to the vehicle and therefore leads to open interfaces to the outside world. Attackers can use those interfaces to impair the privacy of the vehicle owner or to take control (of parts of) the vehicle, which strongly endangers the safety of the passengers as well as other road users. To avoid such attacks and to ensure the safety of modern vehicles, sophisticated structured processes and methods are needed. In this paper we propose a security metric to analyse cyberphysical systems (CPS) in a structured way. Its application leads to a secure system configuration with comparable as well as reusable results. Additionally, the security metric can be used to support the conceptual phase for the development of CPS specified in the new SAE security standard SAE J3061. A case study has been carried out to illustrate the application of the security metric.

The ARTEMIS 1 project DEWI ("Dependable Embedded Wireless Infrastructure") focusses on the area of wireless sensor / actuator networks and wireless communication. With its four industrial domains (Aeronautics, Automotive, Rail, and Building) and 21 clearly industry-driven use cases / applications, DEWI will provide and demonstrate key solutions for wireless seamless connectivity and interoperability in smart cities and infrastructures, by considering everyday physical environments of citizens in buildings, cars, trains and airplanes. It will add clear cross-domain benefits in terms of re-usability of techno-logical building bricks and architecture, processes and methods. DEWI currently is one of the largest funded European RaD projects, comprising 58 renowned industrial and research partners from 11 European countries. (For further details see www.dewi-project.eu)

High precision for radiocarbon cannot be reached without profound insight into the various sources of uncertainty which only can be obtained from systematic investigations. In this paper, we present a whole series of investigations where in some cases 16O:17O:18O served as a substitute for 12C:13C:14C. This circumvents the disadvantages of event counting, providing more precise results in a much shorter time. As expected, not a single effect but a combination of many effects of similar importance were found to be limiting the precision.We will discuss the influence of machine tuning and stability, isotope fractionation, beam current, space charge effects, sputter target geometry, and cratering. Refined measurement and data evaluation procedures allow one to overcome several of these limitations. Systematic measurements on FIRI-D wood show that a measurement precision of ±20 14C yr (1 σ) can be achieved for single-sputter targets.

The probabilistic radiocarbon calibration approach, which largely has replaced the intercept method in 14C dating, is based on the so-called Bayes' theorem (Bayes 1763). Besides single-sample calibration, Bayesian mathematics also supplies tools for combining 14C results of many samples with independent archaeological information such as typology or stratigraphy (Buck et al. 1996). However, specific assumptions in the “prior probabilities”, used to transform the archaeological information into mathematical probability distributions, may bias the results (Steier and Rom 2000). A general technique for guarding against such a bias is “sensitivity analysis”, in which a range of possible prior probabilities is tested. Only results that prove robust in this analysis should be used. We demonstrate the impact of this method for an assumed, yet realistic case of stratigraphically ordered samples from the Hallstatt period, i.e. the Early Iron Age in Central Europe.

The Baden Culture is a widely spread culture of the Young Neolithics in east-central Europe. In southeast Europe, several parallel cultures are found at different places. The main innovations in east-central Europe associated with the Baden Culture were traditionally thought to originate in southeast Europe, Anatolia, and the Levant. However, in recent years, doubt about this theory has arisen among archaeologists.Here, we try to contribute to this question by increasing the radiocarbon data set available for the Baden Culture. Thirty-two age determinations of samples from different sites assigned to the Baden Culture were performed by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)14C dating. The new data were combined with previously published14C dates. Data from the individual cultural phases of the entire Baden period and the parallel cultures in southeast Europe (Sitagroi, Cernavoda, and Ezero) were analyzed by sum calibration. Comparison of the results indicates that the southeastern cultures cannot be synchronized with the Boleráz period, the early phase of the Baden Culture. It seems that these cultures were parallel to the Baden Classical period. This finding, which has to be verified by more data from the southeastern cultures, contradicts the theory of the east-west spreading of these cultures.

Peat deposits in Greenland and Denmark were investigated to show that high-resolution dating of these archives of atmospheric deposition can be provided for the last 50 years by radiocarbon dating using the atmospheric bomb pulse. 14C was determined in macrofossils from sequential one cm slices using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). Values were calibrated with a general-purpose curve derived from annually averaged atmospheric 14CO2 values in the northernmost northern hemisphere (NNH, 30°–90°N). We present a thorough review of 14C bomb-pulse data from the NNH including our own measurements made in tree rings and seeds from Arizona as well as other previously published data. We show that our general-purpose calibration curve is valid for the whole NNH producing accurate dates within 1–2 years. In consequence, 14C AMS can precisely date individual points in recent peat deposits within the range of the bomb-pulse (from the mid-1950s on). Comparing the 14C AMS results with the customary dating method for recent peat profiles by 210Pb, we show that the use of 137Cs to validate and correct 210Pb dates proves to be more problematic than previously supposed.As a unique example of our technique, we show how this chronometer can be applied to identify temporal changes in Hg concentrations from Danish and Greenland peat cores.

Samples originating from the time period after 1950 can be radiocarbon dated utilising the 14C bomb peak as a calibration curve. The applicability of “radiocarbon dating” of recent organic human material for the determination of the time of death of humans was tested. The radiocarbon results from hair and lipid samples from individuals with known date of death were compared with the results from two individuals with unknown time of death. An estimate of the year of death for the unknowns could be derived by this way. Due to the long turnover time of collagen in human bones it is not possible to use the radiocarbon content of bone collagen for a reliable estimate. In order to study the time dependence of the collagen turnover we tested “soft” chemical methods for the isolation of collagen from the bone matrix. First radiocarbon results of this investigation are presented.

In addition to 14C, a large set of δ13C data was produced at NOSAMS as part of the World ocean circulation experiment (WOCE). In this paper, a subset of 973 δ13C results from 63 stations in the Pacific Ocean was compared to a total number of 219 corresponding results from 12 stations sampled during oceanographic programs in the early 1970s. The data were analyzed in light of recent work to estimate the uptake of CO2 derived from fossil fuel and biomass burning in the oceans by quantifying the δ13C Suess effect in the oceans. In principle, the δ13C value of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) allows a quantitative estimate of how much of the anthropogenic CO2 released into the atmosphere is taken up by the oceans, because the δ13C of CO2 derived from organic matter (∼−27‰) is significantly different from that of the atmosphere (∼−8‰). Our new analysis indicates an apparent discrepancy between the old and the new data sets, possibly caused by a constant offset in δ13C values in a subset of the data. A similar offset was reported in an earlier work by Paul Quay et al. for one station that was not included in their final analysis. We present an estimate for this assumed offset based on data from water depths below which little or no change in δ13C over time would be expected. Such a correction leads to a significantly reduced estimate of the CO2 uptake, possibly as low as one half of the amount of 2.1 GtC yr−1 (gigatons carbon per year) estimated previously. The present conclusion is based on a comparison with a relatively small data set from the 70s in the Pacific Ocean. The larger data set collected during the GEOSECS program was not used because of problems reported with the data. This work suggests there may also be problems in comparing non-GEOSECS data from the 1970s to the current data. The calculation of significantly lower uptake estimates based on an offset-related problem appears valid, but the exact figures are tentative because the data set is small and the cause for an offset remains unknown. Therefore, it would be desirable to extend this comparison to the Indian Ocean where it is believed that better GEOSECS δ13C data are available.

The huge amount of raw data collected during routine 14 C AMS measurements requires sophisticated processing tools to guarantee the quality and reliability of the resulting radiocarbon dates. This paper discusses the automatic evaluation system, that is in use and under continuous development at the Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator (VERA) laboratory. It includes a calibration program which is able to handle the bomb-peak. The flexibility of the system allows its use for other rare isotopes also.

This paper presents a brief recollection of the discovery of the Iceman “Otzi”, an extraordinary archaeological find which opened up a window to prehistoric life some 5000 years ago. A selected number of investigations are also presented, with particular emphasis on the 14C dating method.

The possibilities of computer-assisted and automated accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) measurements were explored. The goal of these efforts is to develop fully automated procedures for “routine” measurements at the Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator (VERA), a dedicated 3-MV Pelletron tandem AMS facility. As a new tool for automatic tuning of the ion optics we developed a multi-dimensional optimization algorithm robust to noise, which was applied for 14C and 10Be. The actual isotope ratio measurements are performed in a fully automated fashion and do not require the presence of an operator. Incoming data are evaluated online and the results can be accessed via Internet. The system was used for 14C, 10Be, 26Al and 129I measurements.

With an elaborate accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) technique radiocarbon measurements have been performed with aerosol carbon filtered from high alpine snow samples gathered consecutively at the high-altitude research station Sonnblick (3106 m, Eastern Alps, Austria) during a snow storm in April 1997. The concentration of the water-insoluble carbonaceous material in the molten snow was on the average 310 μg C/L and the total sample amounts for analysis were in the range of 35 μg to 60 μg C. Using a special background correction procedure tested on similar amounts of an urban particulate standard sample the accuracy of the corrected and normalized 14C/12C isotopic ratios of the snow aerosol samples was in the order of 4% to 14% of the measured ratios. The water-insoluble carbonaceous material of five samples from Mt. Sonnblick exhibited a weighted mean of 74 pMC (percent Modern Carbon) with a range of 64 pMC to 88 pMC. Thus, it appears that about 64% of non-soluble carbon in high alpine snow from Sonnblick was of biogenic origin. The temporal variations of the 14C/12C isotopic ratios of the snow aerosol samples were statistically significant, suggesting alterations in the contribution of specific aerosol sources.

Bayesian mathematics provides a tool for combining radiocarbon dating results on findings from an archaeological context with independent archaeological information such as the chronological order, which may be inferred from stratigraphy. The goal is to arrive at both a more precise and a more accurate date. However, by means of simulated measurements we will show that specific assumptions about prior probabilities—implemented in calibration programs and not evident to the user—may create artifacts. This may result in dates with higher precision but lower accuracy, and which are no longer in agreement with the true ages of the findings.

This paper summarizes radiocarbon measurements of mainly botanical samples from the Iceman (“Ötzi”) and from his discovery site, an Alpine glacier at the Austrian-Italian border. The results were obtained by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) at 3 different laboratories (Vienna, Austria; Uppsala, Sweden; Gif-sur-Yvette, France) between 1992 and 1997. All the dates, except 2, are consistent with the time period 3360–3100 BC, as previously determined from bone and tissue samples from the Iceman himself. The 2 exceptional dates from wooden artifacts suggest that the site of the Iceman was used as a mountain pass for millennia prior to and after the lifetime of “Ötzi”.For a 2nd sample complex, we studied logs from the beginning of salt mining in the world's oldest salt mines at Hallstatt in Upper Austria. 14C AMS measurements were performed in Vienna on spruce samples found in the prehistoric mines and from a log-house on the surface. Data evaluation included “wiggle matching” of different sets of tree rings. The results suggest that salt mining in the Hallstatt region took place in the 14th–13th century BC, well before the so-called Hallstatt period.We discuss in some detail the chemical pretreatment of the samples and the data evaluation. We also present a comprehensive survey of 14C dates available in the literature concerning both botanical remains from the vicinity of the Iceman and from the earliest salt mining in Hallstatt.

VERA is a new 3-MV Pelletron tandem AMS facility in Vienna, which was installed during the last months of 1995. This report will discuss the performance characteristics of the facility established during the test operating phase and present first measurements of 14C standards.

Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) at the milligram level is routinely performed, but it is difficult to go substantially below 100 μg of carbon. We discuss various approaches for sample preparation, machine operation and data evaluation, to meet the special requirements of 14C AMS measurements at the microgram-carbon level. Furthermore, we present first results obtained at the Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator (VERA) from 14C measurements of a snow sample from Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA, prepared at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

A newly operating accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) facility such as VERA has to go through an extensive testing phase in order to establish optimal conditions for 14C measurements, especially in the field of archaeological samples where an overall precision of 0.5% is desirable.We discuss the results of our measurements at the milligram carbon level as they relate to long-term stability, reproducibility, precision and isotope fractionation.

14C dating with the new Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator (VERA) began with the age determination of a mummified marmot found in the Austrian Alpine region. Soft tissue and bones of the marmot were used for the investigation. For comparison, bone material from known-age samples was also processed and measured. These exercises showed that 14C dating with VERA is reliable, and since that time various samples from archaeological context have been dated.We also studied the applicability of the 14C method in forensic sciences to determine the time of death of human individuals. 14C/12C measurements of samples from different organic human material (bone collagen, lipids from bone and bone marrow, hair) were performed and compared with the tropospheric “bomb peak” values to transform the measured ratios into “calibrated ages”. For specific substances with rapid turnover rates, this gives an estimate for the time of death of the individual. In our study, lipids and hair yield reasonable times of death, whereas the collagen fraction from bones, which has a relatively long turnover time, is not suitable for this purpose.

Due to its outstanding carrier transport capabilities the aromatic hydrocarbon pentacene is still one of the most promising out of all organic semiconducting materials investigated so far. Pentacene appears in several polymorphic structures that significantly differ with respect to the d(001) spacing. It is shown, that precise control of the epitaxial growth process of thin films enables not only to adjust the formation of the polymorphic phases, but also to influence grain size and shape. The relative volume fraction of the pentacene polymorphs is determined by several parameters which are substrate material, deposition rate, film thickness and substrate temperature. A comparison of X-ray diffraction and Raman measurements reveals that the phase with the smaller layer-by-layer spacing grows on top of the other. Moreover, there is a strict correlation between evaporation rate and maximum grain size. In addition to structural we also investigated the electrical properties of pentacene thin films focussing on polymorphism and its influence on the transport properties. Apart from the fact that the charge carrier mobility is strongly influenced by the grain size it turned out that the bulk phase is related to a lower intrinisic mobility than the thin film phase.

Air sampling for analysis of CO and its isotopic composition (C-13, O-18, and C-14) has been performed at the alpine station Sonnblick(47 degreesN, 13 degreesE, 3106 m above sea level) since September 1996. A high degree of variability is observed, which is due to the wide variation in the origin of air masses sampled. On the basis of the CO and isotope results, a classification of the different samples is performed. Other data such as Be-7, O-3, relative humidity, and back trajectories are used to give additional information about the air mass origin. Background values, representative of the NH midlatitudes free troposphere, are observed about 50% of the time and are used to define seasonal cycles. CO and its isotopes show a minimum in summer and a maximum in winter with extreme values of 90 and 160 ppb for CO, -30 and -25 parts per thousand for delta C-13, 0 and 8 parts per thousand for delta O-18, and 8 and 20 molecules cm(-3) STP for (CO)-C-14. CO and stable isotope data are compared with results from a three-dimensional model (TM2). Generally good agreement supports the CO, delta (CO)-C-13, and deltaC(18)O source/sink distributions inferred by the model. According to model calculations, fossil fuel combustion contributes 35% in summer and 50% in winter of total CO for such a midlatitude location. Other categories of sampled air are "subtropical," "polluted," and "stratospheric" and are observed 24%, 18%, and 4% of the time. Corresponding signatures of CO and its isotopic variations are presented, and some specific events are discussed.

The Iceman was discovered on September 19,1991 at the “Tisenjoch”, a usually glacier-covered mountain pass at 3210 m altitude located at the Italian/Austrian border in the Otztal Alps. Shortly thereafter, AMS measurements of 14C in bone and tissue of the Iceman revealed that he had died somewhere between 5300 and 5100 years ago (Bonani et al., 1992; Hedges et al., 1992; Bonani et al., 1994; Prinotoh—Fornwagner and Niklaus, 1994). Besides the body of the Iceman, numerous pieces of equipment of the Iceman and other materials associated with the finding place were recovered (Lippert, 1992; Bagolini et al., 1996). A small but representative fraction have now been radiocarbon dated at three different AMS laboratories. The present paper summarizes the results of these measurements (see also Rom etal., 1999).

MeIQx and PhIP are putative carcinogenic heterocyclic amines formed during the cooking of meat and fish. Using accelerator mass spectrometry, we have investigated the metabolism and macromolecule binding of 14C-labelled MeIQx and PhIP in human cancer patients compared to the rat. Following oral administration of MeIQx and PhIP, more DNA adducts were formed in human colon tissue compared with rats. Differences were also observed between rats and humans in the metabolite profile and urine excretion for these compounds. These results suggest humans metabolise heterocyclic amines differently to laboratory rodents and question their use as models of human risk.

This paper presents the high-level architecture (HLA) of the research project DEWI (dependable embedded wireless infrastructure). The objective of this HLA is to serve as a reference for the development of industrial wireless sensor and actuator networks (WSANs) based on the concept of the DEWI Bubble. The DEWI Bubble is defined here as a high-level abstraction of an industrial WSAN with enhanced interoperability (via standardized interfaces), technology reusability, and cross-domain development. This paper details the design criteria used to define the HLA and the organization of the infrastructure internal and external to the DEWI Bubble. The description includes the different perspectives, models or views of the architecture: the entity model, the layered model, and the functional view model (including an overview of interfaces). The HLA constitutes an extension of the ISO/IEC SNRA (sensor network reference architecture) towards the support of industrial applications. To improve interoperability with existing approaches the DEWI HLA also reuses some features from other standardized technologies and architectures. The HLA will allow networks with different industrial sensor technologies to exchange information between them or with external clients via standard interfaces, thus providing a consolidated access to sensor information of different domains. This is an important aspect for smart city applications, Big Data and internet-of-things (IoT)., Funded by FCT/MEC (Fundac¸ ˜ao para a Ciˆencia e a Tecnologia), ERDF (European Regional Development Fund) under PT2020, CISTER Research Unit (CEC/04234), and by ARTEMIS/0004/2013-JU grant nr. 621353 (DEWI, www.dewi-project.eu)

This paper examines special features arising in the measurement of atmospheric 14 C monoxide. A detailed error analysis of the 14 CO method including sampling, chemical processing and AMS measurement of samples, standards and blanks is given. Problems regarding the term “percent Modern Carbon (pMC)” are discussed, and the conversion of pMC values to atmospheric 14 CO concentrations is explained.

This paper presents a 2-year record (from September 1996 to July 1998) of atmospheric 14 CO measurements on whole air samples taken at the Mt. Sonnblick observatory (3106 m), a remote high-altitude site in Central Europe. An overall measurement precision of ca. 1/4 molecule 14 CO per cm 3 air has been achieved. A few events including unexpectedly low CO and 14 CO values in winter 1996/97 will be discussed in some detail incorporating stable isotope information. Since the amount of 14 CO data available for the Northern Hemisphere (NH) is rather sparse, this most detailed long-term 14 CO record for NH temperate latitudes may be a valuable contribution to the assessment of global atmospheric OH concentrations.

Our standard setup used for accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) with 14C was modified for measuring various other radionuclides. The injection and detection systems were modified to suit the particular isotope investigated. 10B, the stable isobar of 10Be, is stopped in a gas absorber in front of a surface barrier detector. 26Al is measured similar to 14C, except for a modification of the timing for the sequential isotope injection. For 129I, a time-of-flight setup was built to separate 129I from 127I. For heavier rare radionuclides, the mass resolution of the injector system was improved. We also improved our capabilities in measuring carbon samples having very low mass. We describe two different methods to prepare and to measure sub-milligram 14C samples.

The basic features of VERA, a new AMS facility based on a 3-MV Pelletron tandem accelerator installed at the University of Vienna, are presented.