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The use of plant essential oils as eco-friendly and bio-rational insecticides has emerged as a promising alternative to hazardous fumigant pesticides for controlling stored product insect pests. This study investigated the vapor toxicity of essential oils obtained from the Lamiaceae, Geraniaceae, and Myrtaceae plant families against Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) female adults, commonly known as the Angoumois grain moth. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis revealed Thymol (56.36%), Citronellol (39.7%), Eugenol (80.0%), and Carvacrol (42.28%) as the primary components in Thymus vulgaris, Pelargonium roseum, Syzygium aromaticum, and Satureja hortensis, respectively. Probit analysis and fiducial Limit (FL) calculations determined the 24-hour toxicity (LC50) of the essential oils diluted in acetone (10%), resulting in LC50 values of 20.125 (19.002–21.372), 14.193 (13.044–15.575), 14.189 (12.570-15.879), and 13.562 (11.978–15.323) µgL-1(air) for T. vulgaris, P. roseum, S. aromaticum, and S. hortensis, respectively. Additionally, sublethal effects were observed at LC25 during the first generation. The treatments significantly impacted oviposition (F4,10=81.93; P 4,10=23.49; P = 0.0001), survival rate of larvae-pupae (F4,10=259.86; P = 0.0001), and egg duration (F4,10=9.71; P = 0.0018), leading to decreased values in these parameters. The essential oils derived from these four plant species demonstrate remarkable potential as eco-friendly components in the management of S. cerealella. Their vapor toxicity and sublethal effects on female adults underscore their effectiveness as sustainable tools within integrated pest management strategies for stored product pest control.

To study the effect of zinc foliar application on the morphological characteristics and nutrient uptake (both macro- and micronutrients) in forage maize under drought stress conditions, an experiment was carried out using the factorial method in the form of a complete randomized block design with three replicates during the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 crop seasons. The first experimental factor was drought stress, including irrigation intervals of 8 days [non-stress (NS)], 12 days [moderate drought stress (MDS)], and 16 days [severe drought stress (SDS)]; the second factor was zinc foliar application in two sources of zinc [zinc chelate (Zn-Ch), and zinc nanochelate (Zn-NCh)], and without zinc application (control). Drought stress decreased seed’s and shoot’s phosphorus (P), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe) contents and decreased copper (Cu) and nitrogen (N) contents in the shoot. Meanwhile, drought decreased seed’s N content and potassium (K) content in plant shoots and seeds. However, drought stress had no impact on the seed’s Cu content. Lower nutrient uptake from the soil results in lower vegetative and reproductive growth and, thus, plant height, plant dry and fresh weights, the number of leaves and ears per plant, ear weight, and grain weight decreased with drought stress severity. A maximum reduction in morphological characteristics was observed by applying a 16-day irrigation interval (SDS). Foliar application of Zn-Ch and Zn-NCh significantly decreased the adverse effects of drought stress; under MDS (12-day irrigation interval), applying Zn-Ch and Zn-NCh increased the contents of N and Cu in maize shoots; under SDS (16-day interval), using Zn-Ch and Zn-NCh increased Zn content in seeds and shoots. The results demonstrated the efficient effect of zinc foliar application in alleviating the adverse effects of drought stress. We suggest the foliar application of zinc can be considered a suitable substance for enhancing the efficiency of stabilizing production, utilizing resources, and other inputs.

To study the effects of foliar application of auxin (indole acetic acid) on the morphophysiological and biochemical characteristics of safflower cultivars under water-deficit stress (WDS) condition at the end of the growing season, an experiment was performed using split-plot factorial in the form of randomized complete block design with three replicates during the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 crop seasons. The main factor of this experiment was water-deficit stress in two levels, i.e., normal irrigation (control) and irrigation cut-off at flowering stage, and two sub-factors include safflower cultivars (Golmehr and Goldasht) and foliar application of auxin in two levels, i.e., no application and applying 4 g.L−1 auxin. Water stress decreased bush heights, grain weight, grain yield, biological yield, harvest index, SPAD index, contents of oil, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, and oleic acid and increased proline content and activities of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase and peroxidase. In comparison with the Golmehr cultivar, the Goldasht cultivar had a higher number of grains (13.27%), grain yield (32.42%), and biological yield (34.29%). Higher bush height (15%), oil percent (9.58%), linoleic acid (30.76%), and oleic acid content (19.59%) were observed in Golmehr cultivar. Under WDS, the activities of antioxidant enzymes and proline in the two cultivars did not change significantly; however, under WDS, meanwhile, Goldasht cultivar showed higher catalase (12%) and peroxidase (13.5%) activities and proline (11.04%). Since using auxin alleviated the side effects of WDS through increasing SPAD index (2.51%), proline content (17.93%), and activities of catalase (30.53%) and peroxidase (14.72%) enzymes, auxin application can be recommended for alleviating the effects of WDS.

Canola production is undergoing a shift from direct seeding to transplanting. There are also serious global challenges caused by zinc (Zn) deficiency in most crops. The aim of this study was to evaluate the crop establishment methods (direct seeding and transplanting) along with foliar application of Zn on phenology, physiology, and fatty acid (FA) profile of canola under semiarid conditions. The treatments were crop establishment methods at three levels (direct sedding, 2-leaf transplanting, 4-leaf transplanting) and foliar application of Zn in two levels (control and 5 g L−1 ZnSO4) during 2017–2018 and 2018–2019 growing seasons. Transplanting reached the stem elongation and flowering stages in a short period compared to direct seeding. The 4-leaf transplanting practice represented the increased plant height, number of silique per plant, and seed yield compared to 2-leaf transplanting and direct seeding. The significant effect of Zn was only observed in 4-leaf transplanting with respect to the increase of plant height, number of silique per plant, seed yield, and decline of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). The maximum total soluble sugar (TSS) and seed oil content were observed under the 4-leaf transplanting practice. The main FA profile was oleic acid (65.07–67.13%) followed by linoleic acid (16.37–18%), linolenic acids (6.63–7.92%), palmitic acid (4.10–4.52%), steric acid (1.77–2.22%), and erucic acid (0.21–0.25%). Heat map analysis showed the highest variation of branch number, silique number, PAR, and TSS under different copying systems. We suggest 4-leaf transplanting with Zn application to meet the optimum productivity of canola under semiarid conditions.

To investigate the influence of potassium nano-silica (PNS) on maize plant under drought stress including non-stress (NS), moderate drought stress (MDS) and severe drought stress (SDS), a factorial experiment was conducted with completely randomized blocks with three replications. Drought stress decreased the concentrations in the shoot of phosphor (P), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn) and silica (Si) and nitrogen (N), P, Ca, Fe, Zn, copper (Cu), Mn and Si concentrations of seed. There was an increase in the concentration in the N seed and shoot potassium (K) concentration under drought stress. It was observed that applying PNS increased nutrient absorption. The highest concentration of N in the seed was obtained at 100 ppm PNS. The highest concentrations of seed K and N, Cu, Mn and Si in the shoot were found when 200 ppm of PNS was applied. Applying PNS had no significant effect on the concentrations of P, Ca, sodium (Na) and Cu in the seed, and of Ca and Na in the shoot. These findings demonstrate that the application of PNS can limit the negative effects of drought stress and improve plant’s resistance against drought stress.

Essential oils (EOs) contain a complex mixture of volatile and non-volatile molecules with diverse biological activities, including flavoring, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and nutraceutical properties. As a result, EOs have numerous potential applications in the agriculture, food, and pharmaceutical industries. However, their hydrophobicity, chemical instability, and volatility pose a challenge for many of their applications. These challenges can often be overcome by encapsulation EOs in colloidal delivery systems. Over the last decade or so, nanoencapsulation and microencapsulation technologies have been widely explored for their potential to improve the handling, dispersibility, and stability of hydrophobic substances, as well as to control their release profiles (e.g., targeted, triggered, sustained, or burst release). These technologies include emulsification, coacervation, precipitation, spray-drying, spray-cooling, freeze-drying, fluidized bed coating, and extrusion. This article reviews some of the most important developments in EOs encapsulation, the physicochemical mechanisms underlying the behavior of encapsulated EOs, current challenges, and potential applications in the food and biomedical sciences. This review has found that nanoencapsulation has countless of potential advantages for the utilization of EOs in the food industry and can improve their water-dispersibility, food matrix compatibility, chemical stability, volatility, and bioactivity.

The effect of three different coating materials, including maltodextrin (MD, 9.95-20.05%), gum arabic (GA, 4.98-10.02%), and whey protein isolate (WPI, 4.95-15.05%), was optimized in order to produce high-quality beetroot extract powder (BEP) using response surface modeling (RSM). Beetroot extract (BE) was encapsulated using MD, GA, and WPI by implementing a spray-drying method. The highest total phenolic content (TPC) was obtained at 15% MD, 7.5% GA, and 10% WPI. The same results were achieved for antioxidant activity. Increasing the MD and GA contents resulted in reducing the moisture adsorption of microencapsulated BEP.

Organic substrates are gaining popularity as a means of mitigating the negative effects of cadmium (Cd) stress on plant growth. The aim of the present study was to investigate the physio-biochemical attributes of Berberis integerrima bunge under Cd-contaminated soil. The pot experiment was carried out based on a completely randomized design (CRD) with six replicates. Cd stress was used as cadmium chloride (CdCl2) at 10, 20, and 30 mg Cd kg−1 dry soil. Biochar was applied at the doses of 125 g per pot, and vermicompost was used at the doses of 250 g per pot separately, and for their combination, they were used as 125 g per pot of BC + 250 g per pot of VC. The results showed higher Cd accumulation in both roots and leaves when the soil was polluted with Cd concentrations, but both BC and VC decreased the Cd accumulation in plant tissues. Although chlorophyll content and relative water content (RWC) decreased at 20 and 30 mg Cd kg−1 soil, BC and VC, particularly their combination, increased these traits. The highest total phenolic content (TPC) was observed in plants exposed to 20 mg Cd kg−1 soil and combined BC and VC. The total flavonoid content (TFC) was increased to 20 mg Cd kg−1 soil and then decreased to 30 mg Cd kg−1 soil. In addition, organic fertilizer promoted the plants’ high accumulation of TFC. The greater activities of antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD) and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) were observed at 30 mg Cd kg−1 soil when organic substrates were added. The present study suggests the use of combined BC and VC lead to alleviate the adverse effects of Cd stress in B. integerrima.

Nanotechnology is a quickly growing field and have been actually used in a varied assortment of marketable products worldwide. Nanoencapsulation demonstrations the advantage of more efficient and targeted use of pesticides in an environmentally friendly way. Research and development in post-harvest nanotechnology can help to preserve food freshness and quality and prevent diseases in a relatively safer way. In this regard, essential oils (EOs) represent promising agents for reducing food decay and development of pathogen microorganisms. The overall aim of the present study was to encapsulate Iranian thyme (Thymus daenensis L) and dill (Anethum graveolens L.) EOs in copper nanoparticles (NPs) and to evaluate their antifungal activity against the phytopathogen Colletotrichum nymphaeae. Encapsulation of thyme and dill EOs with copper NPs resulted effective in reducing the mycelium growth even by 90% after 9 days treatment. Furthermore a strong inhibitory effect on conidia germination of C. nymphaeae was observed. SEM observations indicated that C. nymphaeae treated with EOs, copper NPs and encapsulated EOs, showed deformation in mycelial growth and hyphae twisting. In summary, these results showed that nano-encapsulation of EOs with NPs, using safe materials, increased the perspective of their effectiveness as new plant disease management strategies.

Intercropping fodder plants with medicinal plants, in addition to enhancing productivity, can remarkably reduce the population of weeds, pests and diseases and for naturally meeting of livestock medicinal needs. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate biological yield, essential oil (EO) composition and yield of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) treated with N2 fixing bacteria in additive intercropping with forage maize during the 2018 and 2019. Treatments were arranged in factorial split-plot-in time in randomized complete block design with three replications. The factors were 100% chemical fertilizer (N), N2 fixing bacteria (Azospirillum brasilense and Azotobacter chroococcum), integration of N2 fixing bacteria + 50% nitrogen chemical fertilizer and control. The cropping pattern factor included of sole cropping basil and the additive intercropping of maize + 25% basil, maize + 50% basil, maize + 75% basil, and maize + 100% basil. The results indicated that the highest essential oil yield (30.8 kg ha−1) and essential oil percentage (0.75%) were obtained in sole cropping with A. brasilense and A. chroococcum + 50% chemical nitrogen fertilizer application in second harvest in 2019. In both cropping systems, the N2 fixing bacteria application significantly increased fresh and dry yield and land equivalent ratio (LER) as compared to control plants. In both years of experiments could remarkably vary depending on type of treatment. In both years, eight constituents including methyl chavicol (17.24–51.28%), Z-citral (neral) (8.33–24.3%), geranial (10.2–31.3%), (E)-caryophyllene (1.05–5.64%), α-trans-bergamotene (0.53–1.7%), α-humulene (0.4–1.69%), germacrene-D (0.2–1.88%), and (Z)-α- bisabolene (1.16–3.86%) were the main constituents of EO. The highest content of methyl chavicol was found through sole cropping of sweet basil with nitrogen chemical fertilizer followed by sole cropping of sweet basil with an integration of A. brasilense and A. chroococcum + 50% nitrogen chemical fertilizer in 2018 and 2019. Intercropping system and N2 fixing bacteria can be effective in reducing chemical fertilizer consumption and environmental pollution and achieving the sustainable agriculture goals.

Drought is one of the major environmental stresses affecting the many crops performance by altering physiological and biochemical processes. Zinc application could mitigate the adverse effects of drought stress. To investigate the effects of foliar application of zinc on the morphophysiological and biochemical traits of safflower cultivars under drought stress, two field experiments were conducted as split plots based on randomized complete blocks design with three replicates during 2018−2019 and 2019−2020 growing seasons. Experimental factors included drought stress as the primary factor, safflower cultivars, and zinc foliar application as secondary factors. Drought stress included two levels (non-stress and drought stress); safflower cultivars were Isfahan, Linas, Padideh, Parnian, and Goldasht; foliar application of zinc was in three levels (0, 0.5, and 1 kg ha−1 Zn). Results showed drought stress decreased plant height, 1000-seed weight, seed yield, biological yield, soil plant analysis development (SPAD) chlorophyll index, relative water content (RWC), leaf area index (LAI), oil percentage, oil yield, palmitic acid, linoleic acid. Whereas, drought stress increased proline content, oleic acid, and antioxidant enzyme activity. Maximum plant height (145 cm) and oil percentage (29 %) were observed in Isfahan cultivar, maximum amounts of SPAD index (75.96 %), catalase enzyme (CAT) (0.69 μmol min-1 mg protein-1), proline (5 mM g-1 FW), linoleic acid (76 %), and palmitic acid (7 %) were observed in Goldasht cultivar. Parnian cv. with the highest leaf area (2.98 cm2), RWC (78 %), 1000-seed weight (43 g), seed yield (3514 kg ha-1), biological yield (13,542 kg ha-1), peroxidase enzyme (POX) (2.84 μmol min-1 mg protein-1), water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC) (107 mg g-1 DW), and oil yield (807 kg ha-1) had the highest economic yield among the experimented cultivars. Foliar application of 1 kg ha-1 Zn improved oil yield, RWC, SPAD index, proline content, carbohydrate content, LAI, and CAT and POX activities. Zinc application enhanced drought stress tolerance in different cultivars through improving effects on the antioxidant activity system, proline content, carbohydrate content, RWC, and SPAD index.

Appropriate soil conditions as a cultural practice are the basis of medicinal plant production. The experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of NPK, vermicompost (VC), Pseudomonas fluorescens (PF), Azotobacter chroococcum (AC), Azospirillum brasilense (AB), Glomus mosseae (AMF) on plant weight, antioxidant capacity and fatty acid (FA) profile of seed oil, and leaf nutrients of black cumin (Nigella sativa Linn) in 2018 and 2019. The results showed that dry weight in plants treated with VC (24.9 g and 28.8 g) or in AMF-inoculated plants (23.4 g and 27.8 g) was significantly higher compared with other treatments in 2018 and 2019, respectively. The highest (1.34 mg gallic acid (GA) g−1 oil) total phenolic content (TPC) and DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) scavenging activity (86.8 %) was observed in plants treated with VC, and followed by AMF. The main fatty acid component was linoleic acid (51.92–55.46 %), followed by oleic acid (22.6–24.5 %) and palmitic acid (13.24–16.27 %). The saturated fatty acid (SFA) under NPK application (23.39 % and 24.21 % in 2018 and 2019) was higher than other experimental treatments. Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) concentration in plants inoculated with AMF (25.15 % and 25.41 % in 2018 and 2019, respectively) or supplied with AB and PF was greater. The seed oil of black cumin contained the significant level of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), which its highest content was obtained at in plants treated with VC as 55.74 % and 55.79 % in 2018 and 2019, respectively. Sustainable agricultural practices are required to increase ecofriendly performance, by using soil micro-organisms, conserving the natural resource base for improved medicinal plant cultivation.

Implementing intercropping and applying arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi can be alternatives for applying chemical fertilizers. We investigated the effectiveness of Glomus intraradices on yield, land equivalent ratio (LER), yield of essential oil (EO) and EO composition of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) in different cropping systems. Two experiments were carried out in triplicate with a complete, randomized block design in the years 2017 and 2018. The cropping systems included a) coriander sole cropping at 25, 50 or 75 plants m−2, b) soybean (Glycine max L.) sole cropping at 40 plants m−2, and c) intercropping of different densities of coriander (25, 50 or 75 plants m−2) with soybean at 40 plants m−2. All cropping systems were exposed to treatments without (-AM) or with (+AM) application of Glomus intraradices. Applying G. intraradices significantly increased contents of macro- and micronutrients in coriander plants, and also enhanced LER and EO yield. Implementing intercropping and applying AM inoculation affected EO composition in coriander. The contents of limonene, apiole, coriander ether, n-dihydrocarvone, carvone, myristicin and coriander_apiole was enhanced in AM treated and intercropped coriander plants, while applying G. intraradices resulted in a reduced content of cis-sabinol and phytol of sole-cropped and intercropped coriander plants.

This study aims to fabricate Eryngium campestre essential oil (ECEO) encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles (CHNPs) through an ion gelation method. The resultant CHNP-ECEO dispersions were characterized in terms of particle size, zeta potential and polydispersity index. To extend the shelf-life of sweet cherries, we have coated a thin layer of CHNP-ECEO on the surface of the fruits. The cherries coated with various concentrations of encapsulated ECEO, were assessed for their physicochemical characteristics (weight loss, pH, titratable acidity, respiration rate, firmness, antioxidant activity, and total phenolic contents) and microbial growth during the 21 days storage at 4 °C. The results showed a significant reduction of the microbial counts for all CHNP-ECEO coated cherries throughout the experiment. Besides, all CHNP-ECEO coated cherries exhibited a reduced titratable acid and weight loss compared to the control whereas the pH, firmness, total phenolic contents and antioxidant activity were changed in reverse direction and moderately increased. In conclusion, the coatings composed of CHNPs and ECEO were demonstrated to be efficient in controlling the microbial growth of the cherries and can be comparably applied for other types of fruits with similar compositions.

The effects of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) species (Glomus intraradices and G. mosseae), nitrogen (N) fertilizer and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on growth characteristics, essential oil (EO) content, nutrient uptake and components of medicinal plants basil (Ocimum basilicum) and satureja (Satureja hortensis) were studied. The use of these fertilizers significantly (P < 0.05) increased plant height, root length, fresh and dry weights of shoots and roots, number of shoot branches and number of inflorescences per plant, EO content, phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N), iron (Fe), potassium (K), and copper (Cu) content. Moreover, application of AMF and PGPR significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced linalol, methyl chavicol, trans-geraniol, camphor and limonene concentrations in basil EO and carvacrol, thymol, p-cymene, α-terpinene and γ-terpinene in satureja EO components. G. mosseae application achieved the highest increases in basil and satureja EO percentage by 39 % and 25 %, respectively, compared to plants treated with mineral fertilizer, and 80 % and 50 %, respectively, compared to unfertilized plants. The highest N, K, Fe and P concentrations in basil and satureja were obtained when PGPR or G. mosseae were used. This study shows that application of biofertilizers not only improves yields in medicinal plants, but they also play a significant role in increasing their bioactive compounds and plant nutrition.

In the current research, production of watermelon rind (WMR) powder was studied as a promising additive to improve the quality characteristics of toast breads. The main formulation (WMR (4.6–11.4%)), and bread-baking process (temperature (166–233 °C) and time (17–33 min)) parameters using response surface methodology (RSM) were optimized to retard the acceleration of staling rate in toast breads. The second-order polynomial regression equations (R2 > 0.939) were adequately fitted for all response variables. The highest moisture (22%), volume (1431 cm3), and organoleptic acceptability (8.10) values and the lowest firmness (10.50 N) and total color difference (9.80) values were achieved under the following conditions: WMR concentration of 9.06%, baking temperature of 206.66 °C and baking time of 20 min. The analysis of dough farinographic and extensographic characteristics showed a significant more water absorption (72.5%), development (6.7 min) and stability (7.8 min) time, and extensibility (143 mm) values for the optimal sample compared to the control. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that the thicker cell wall induced by WMR in the optimal bread (183.54 μm) than the control (78.39 μm) was able to maintain air bobbles during the storage time. A negligible staling rate was also found for the optimal breads with the lowest moisture, textural, color and sensory changes.

Competition for soil resources plays a key role in the crop yield of intercropping systems. There is a lack of knowledge on the main factors involved in competitive interactions between crops and weeds for nutrients uptake. Hence, the purpose of this work was to compare the effects of arbuscular mycorrhial fungi ( Funneliformis mosseae ) colonization in interspecific competitive relations and its effect on nutrients uptake and weed control in dill and common bean intercropping. Two field experiments were carried out with factorial arrangements based on randomized complete block design with three replications during 2013–2014. The factors were cropping systems including a) common bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) sole cropping (40 plants m −2 ), b) dill ( Anethum graveolens L.) sole cropping at different densities (25, 50 and 75 plants m −2 ) and c) the additive intercropping of dill + common bean (25 + 40, 50 + 40 and 75 + 40 plants m −2 ). All these treatments were applied with (+AM) or without (-AM) arbuscular mycorrhiza colonization. In both cropping systems, inoculation with F. mosseae increased the P, K, Fe and Zn concentrations of dill plants by 40, 524, 57 and 1.0 μg kg −1 DW, respectively. Intercropping increased Mn concentration in common bean (4.0 μg kg −1 DW) and dill (3.0 μg kg −1 DW), and also seed yields of both crops (198 g m −2 and161 g m −2 , respectively). AM colonization improved seed yields of dill and common bean by 169 and 177 g m −2 in 2013 and 2014, respectively. Moreover, AM application enhanced competitive ability of dill + common bean intercrops against weeds at different intercropping systems. Intercropping significantly changed weed density compared to sole cropping, as weed density was decreased in the dill + common bean intercropping. Diversity (H), Evenness (E) and richness of weed species of weeds for intercrops were higher than those for sole crops.

Intercropping and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi colonization are important strategies for improving crop yield and quality. Thus, two experiments were carried out with factorial arrangement based on randomized complete block design with three replications, to investigate the influence of AM fungi on common bean yield and essential oil (EO) quantity and quality of dill seed at different cropping systems in 2013 and 2014. The factors were cropping systems including (a) common bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) sole cropping (40 plants m −2 ), (b) dill ( Anethum graveolens L.) sole cropping at different densities (25, 50 and 75 plants m −2 ) and (c) the additive intercropping of common bean + dill (25 + 40, 50 + 40 and 75 + 40 plants m −2 ). All these treatments were applied with or without AM colonization. In both cropping systems, the AM colonization significantly increased the seed and EO yields as compared with non-inoculated plants. The land equivalent ratio (LER), time equivalent ratio (ATER), land utilization efficiency (LUE) and relative value total (RVT) were higher at intercropping compared with sole cropping. The aggressivity (A) and relative crowding coefficient (K) values were greater for common bean than for dill, whereas the corresponding values for dill were lower in intercropping with common bean. In both years, the Funneliformis mosseae colonization improved yield and intercropping indices, compared with non-inoculated plants. The content of α-phellandrene, limonene, β-phellandrene, dill-ether and carvone were enhanced in seed EO obtained from AM-inoculated and intercropped dill plants, while AM colonization resulted in a lesser content of α-phellandrene, limonene, β-phellandrene, iso-dihydrocarveol and thymol in sole cropped dill plants.

Intercropping and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi application are thought to be useful means of minimizing the risks of agricultural production in many environments. Hence, this work was conducted to study and compare the effectiveness of AM fungi (Funneliformis mosseae) on growth, chlorophyll content, shoot water content, land equivalent ratio (LER) and essential oil (EO) yield and composition of dill in different cropping systems. Two experiments were carried out with factorial arrangement based on randomized complete block design with three replications in 2013 and 2014. The factors were cropping systems including (a) common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) sole cropping (40 plants m−2), (b) dill (Anethum graveolens L.) sole cropping at different densities (25, 50 and 75 plants m−2) and (c) the additive intercropping of dill + common bean (25+40, 50+40 and 75+40 plants m−2). All these treatments were applied with (+AM) or without (−AM) arbuscular mycorrhiza colonization. In both cropping systems, the AM colonization significantly increased chlorophyll content, LER and EO yield as compared to non-inoculated plants. Changes in EO composition were detected in inoculated and intercropped dill plants. The content of α-phellandrene, limonene, β-phellandrene, terpinen-4-ol, cryptone and carvone were enhanced in EO obtained from AM-inoculated and intercropped dill plants, while AM colonization resulted in a lesser content of α-terpinene, p-cymene, α-terpinolene, p-α-dimethylstyrene, dill ether, n-dihydrocarvone and cis-sabinol at sole cropped dill plants.

The purpose of the present work was to evaluate effects of zinc application on growth and uptake and distribution of mineral nutrients under salinity stress [0, 33, 66, and 99 mM sodium chloride (NaCl)] in soybean plants. Results showed that, salinity levels caused a significant decrease in shoot dry and fresh weight in non-zinc application plants. Whereas, zinc application on plants exposed to salinity stress improved the shoot dry and fresh weight. Potassium (K) concentration, K/sodium (Na) and calcium (Ca)/Na ratios significantly decreased, while sodium (Na) concentration increased in root, shoot, and seed as soil salinity increased. Phosphorus (P) concentration significantly decreased in shoot under salinity stress. Moreover, calcium (Ca) significantly decreased in root, but increased in seed with increased salinization. Iron (Fe) concentration significantly decreased in all organs of plant (root, shoot, and seed) in response to salinity levels. Zinc (Zn) concentration of plant was not significantly a...

Essential oils have been widely used against a range of plant pathogens due to their antimicrobial effects. Mycorrhization of aromatic plants can enhance the concentration of essential oil components obtained from these plants. This study evaluated the effect of essential oils obtained from dill ( Anethum graveolens ), inoculated with Funneliformis mosseae, against Colletotrichum nymphaeae , the causal agent of strawberry anthracnose. Dill plants were inoculated with F. mosseae under field conditions, essential oils were extracted from the seeds of inoculated and non-inoculated dill and chemical analysis of their composition was carried out. The efficacy of non-inoculated and inoculated essential oil against C. nymphaeae was evaluated through in vitro experiments. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis showed that constituents were the same in essential oils extracted from seeds of inoculated and non-inoculated dill plants, however several components increased significantly with inoculated as compared with non-inoculated treatments particularly known antimicrobial compounds including limonene and carvone. Essential oil from inoculated plants inhibited mycelium growth (contact and volatile phases) and conidia germination of C. nymphaeae more efficiently than oil from non-inoculated plants. Essential oil from both inoculated and non-inoculated dill plants affected the morphology in a similar manner and deterioration in the morphology was more evident when higher concentrations (500 and 1000 mg/L) were applied. The increase in antimicrobial efficacy due to F. mosseae may have a positive impact on the further development of dill essential oils for plant protection against diseases. This is the first evidence of a positive effect of F. mosseae colonization of dill on the antimicrobial activity of its essential oil against C. nymphaeae .

A factorial experiment based on RCB design with three replicates was conducted to investigate changes in some physiological responses of two chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars (Pirouz from Desi type and ILC482 from Kabuli type) to arbuscular mycorrhiza (Glomus etunicatum Becker and Gerdman) under different irrigation treatments. The experiment was carried out in the greenhouse of the Agricultural Faculty of Kurdistan University from April to August 2009. The results showed that leaf chlorophyll content of chickpea cultivars was significantly increased by arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) under both well and limited irrigation conditions. Proline accumulation in chickpea leaves under moderate and severe drought stresses was significantly stronger than that under optimum irrigation. Inoculation of chickpea with mycorrhizal fungi caused an increase in the activities of polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase, but a decrease in the activity of catalase. Comparisons among different irrigation levels showed that chickpea plants under drought stress had the most active lipid peroxidation. Non-AM plants showed stronger lipid peroxidation under moderate and severe water stresses than AM plants. Lipid peroxidation was more active in Pirouz leaves than in ILC482 leaves. It seems that Kabuli-type cultivar responded better to mycorrhizal symbiosis under drought stress than Desitype cultivar.

In order to investigate the effects of Glomus species on some physiological characteristics of two chickpea types (Pirouz cultivar of Desi type and ILC-482 of Kabuli type) under non-stress (NS) and drought stress, an experiment was conducted using a factorial arrangement based on completely randomized design with three replications. Drought stress decreased shoot and total dry weight in plants. However inoculation of plants with mycorrhiza improved these traits. Leaf chlorophyll content was decreased, but leaf proline content and guaiacol peroxidases (EC 1.11.1.7) (POD), catalase (EC 1.11.1.6) (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.11) (APX) activities were increased as a result of drought stress. Drought stress had no significant effect on soluble protein content and polyphenol oxidase (EC 1.10.3.1) (PPO) enzymatic activity in chickpea plants. In general, drought stress and especially severe drought stress increased membrane lipid peroxidation (MDA) in chickpea plants, which was more evident in non-inoculated than in inoculated plants. Inoculation of chickpea by AM significantly increased POD and PPO activities compared with non-inoculated chickpea, but had no effect on CAT activity and proline content of leaves. The reaction of chickpea cultivars to inoculation by AM species and irrigation levels were different. ILC-482 showed that antioxidant enzymes activities were more and thus less MDA compared with Pirouz cultivar. In general, the most POD and PPO activities were recorded for inoculated plants with G. etunicatum and G. versiform species, and the most APX activity was observed in plants inoculated with G. intraradices.