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Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) is a metal 3D printing technology that deposits molten metal wire on a substrate to form desired geometries. Articulated robot arms are commonly used in WAAM to produce complex geometric shapes. However, they mostly rely on proprietary robot and weld control software that limits process tuning and customization, incorporation of third-party sensors, implementation on robots and weld controllers from multiple vendors, and customizable user programming. This paper presents a general open-source software architecture for WAAM that addresses these limitations. The foundation of this architecture is Robot Raconteur, an open-source control and communication framework that serves as the middleware for integrating robots and sensors from different vendors. Based on this architecture, we developed an end-to-end robotic WAAM implementation that takes a CAD file to a printed WAAM part and evaluates the accuracy of the result. The major components in the architecture include part slicing, robot motion planning, part metrology, in-process sensing, and process tuning. The current implementation is based on Motoman robots and Fronius weld controller, but the approach is applicable to other industrial robots and weld controllers. The capability of the WAAM tested is demonstrated through the printing of parts of various geometries and acquisition of in-process sensor data for motion adjustment.

Industrial robotic applications such as spraying, welding, and additive manufacturing frequently require fast, accurate, and uniform motion along a 3D spatial curve. To increase process throughput, some manufacturers propose a dual-robot setup to overcome the speed limitation of a single robot. Industrial robot motion is programmed through waypoints connected by motion primitives (Cartesian linear and circular paths and linear joint paths at constant Cartesian speed). The actual robot motion is affected by the blending between these motion primitives and the pose of the robot (an outstretched/near-singularity pose tends to have larger path tracking errors). Choosing the waypoints and the speed along each motion segment to achieve the performance requirement is challenging. At present, there is no automated solution, and laborious manual tuning by robot experts is needed to approach the desired performance. In this paper, we present a systematic three-step approach to designing and programming a dual robot system to optimize system performance. The first step is to select the relative placement between the two robots based on the specified relative motion path. The second step is to select the relative waypoints and the motion primitives. The final step is to update the waypoints iteratively based on the actual measured relative motion. Waypoint iteration is first executed in simulation and then completed using the actual robots. For performance assessment, we use the mean path speed subject to the relative position and orientation constraints and the path speed uniformity constraint. We have demonstrated the effectiveness of this method on two systems, a physical testbed of two ABB robots and a simulation testbed of two FANUC robots, for two challenging test curves.

Seven degree-of-freedom (DOF) robot arms have one redundant DOF which does not change the motion of the end effector. The redundant DOF offers greater manipulability of the arm configuration to avoid obstacles and singularities, but it must be parameterized to fully specify the joint angles for a given end effector pose. For 7-DOF revolute (7R) manipulators, we introduce a new concept of generalized shoulder-elbow-wrist (SEW) angle, a generalization of the conventional SEW angle but with an arbitrary choice of the reference direction function. The SEW angle is widely used and easy for human operators to visualize as a rotation of the elbow about the shoulder-wrist line. Since other redundancy parameterizations including the conventional SEW angle encounter an algorithmic singularity along a line in the workspace, we introduce a special choice of the reference direction function called the stereographic SEW angle which has a singularity only along a half-line, which can be placed out of reach. We prove that such a singularity is unavoidable for any parameterization. We also include expressions for the SEW angle Jacobian along with singularity analysis. Finally, we provide efficient and singularity-robust inverse kinematics solutions for most known 7R manipulators using the general SEW angle and the subproblem decomposition method. These solutions are often closed-form but may sometimes involve a 1D or 2D search in the general case. Search-based solutions may be converted to finding zeros of a high-order polynomial. Inverse kinematics solutions, examples, and evaluations are available in a publicly accessible repository., Comment: 22 pages, 14 figures. Update: Sawyer IK using polynomial method, two video extensions, expanded related literature

Industrial robots are increasingly deployed in applications requiring an end effector tool to closely track a specified path, such as in spraying and welding. Performance and productivity present possibly conflicting objectives: tracking accuracy, path speed, and motion uniformity. Industrial robots are programmed through motion primitives consisting of waypoints connected by pre-defined motion segments, with specified parameters such as path speed and blending zone. The actual executed robot motion depends on the robot joint servo controller and joint motion constraints (velocity, acceleration, etc.) which are largely unknown to the users. Programming a robot to achieve the desired performance today is time-consuming and mostly manual, requiring tuning a large number of coupled parameters in the motion primitives. The performance also depends on the choice of additional parameters: possible redundant degrees of freedom, location of the target curve, and the robot configuration. This paper presents a systematic approach to optimize the robot motion primitives for performance. The approach first selects the static parameters, then the motion primitives, and finally iteratively update the waypoints to minimize the tracking error. The ultimate performance objective is to maximize the path speed subject to the tracking accuracy and speed uniformity constraints over the entire path. We have demonstrated the effectiveness of this approach in simulation for ABB and FANUC robots for two challenging example curves, and experimentally for an ABB robot. Comparing with the baseline using the current industry practice, the optimized performance shows over 200% performance improvement.

This paper presents the open-source robot inverse kinematics (IK) solver IK-Geo, the fastest general IK solver based on published literature. In this unifying approach, IK for any 6-DOF all-revolute (6R) manipulator is decomposed into six canonical geometric subproblems solved by intersecting circles with other geometric objects. We present new efficient and singularity-robust solutions to these subproblems using geometric and linear algebra methods. IK-Geo finds all IK solutions including singular solutions and sometimes least-squares solutions by solving for subproblem solutions in all cases, including in a continuous and sometimes least-squares sense when a solution does not exist. Robots are classified into kinematic families based on cases of intersecting or parallel joint axes, and robots in the same family use the same IK algorithm. 6R robots with three intersecting or parallel axes are solved in closed form, and all solutions are found exactly without iteration. Other 6R robots are efficiently solved by searching for zeros of an error function of one or two joint angles. The subproblem and IK solutions are easy to understand, implement, test, and modify, meaning this method is readily ported to new languages and environments. We connect our geometric method with less efficient but more robust polynomial-based methods: rather than using search, subproblems and error functions may be written in terms of the tangent half-angle of one joint. This results in a system of multivariate polynomial equations from which the univariate polynomial with zeros corresponding to IK solutions is readily derived., Comment: 19 pages, 8 figures. Update 2: New polynomial IK method, 1D search for nonconsecutive intersecting axes. Update 1: New subproblem solution methods and timing results

Fast and precise motion control is important for industrial robots in manufacturing applications. However, some collaborative robots sacrifice precision for safety, particular for high motion speed. The performance degradation is caused by the inability of the joint servo controller to address the uncertain nonlinear dynamics of the robot arm, e.g., due to joint flexibility. We consider two approaches to improve the trajectory tracking performance through feedforward compensation. The first approach uses iterative learning control, with the gradient-based iterative update generated from the robot forward dynamics model. The second approach uses dynamic inversion to directly compensate for the robot forward dynamics. If the forward dynamics is strictly proper or is non-minimum-phase (e.g., due to time delays), its stable inverse would be non-causal. Both approaches require robot dynamical models. This paper presents results of using recurrent neural networks (RNNs) to approximate these dynamical models-forward dynamics in the first case, inverse dynamics (possibly non-causal) in the second case. We use the bi-directional RNN to capture the noncausality. The RNNs are trained based on a collection of commanded trajectories and the actual robot responses. We use a Baxter robot to evaluate the two approaches. The Baxter robot exhibits significant joint flexibility due to the series-elastic joint actuators. Both approaches achieve sizable improvement over the uncompensated robot motion, for both random joint trajectories and Cartesian motion. The inverse dynamics method is particularly attractive as it may be used to more accurately track a user input as in teleoperation., Comment: Accepted by IROS 2019

Fast and precise robot motion is needed in certain applications such as electronic manufacturing, additive manufacturing and assembly. Most industrial robot motion controllers allow externally commanded motion profile, but the trajectory tracking performance is affected by the robot dynamics and joint servo controllers which users have no direct access and little information. The performance is further compromised by time delays in transmitting the external command as a setpoint to the inner control loop. This paper presents an approach of combining neural networks and iterative learning control to improve the trajectory tracking performance for a multi-axis articulated industrial robot. For a given desired trajectory, the external command is iteratively refined using a high fidelity dynamical simulator to compensate for the robot inner loop dynamics. These desired trajectories and the corresponding refined input trajectories are then used to train multi-layer neural networks to emulate the dynamical inverse of the nonlinear inner loop dynamics. We show that with a sufficiently rich training set, the trained neural networks can generalize well to trajectories beyond the training set. In applying the trained neural networks to the physical robot, the tracking performance still improves but not as much as in the simulator. We show that transfer learning can effectively bridge the gap between simulation and the physical robot. In the end, we test the trained neural networks on other robot models in simulation and demonstrate the possibility of a general purpose network. Development and evaluation of this methodology is based on the ABB IRB6640-180 industrial robot and ABB RobotStudio software packages.

The light-based minimum-time circadian entrainment problem for mammals, Neurospora, and Drosophila is studied based on the mathematical models of their circadian gene regulation. These models contain high order nonlinear differential equations. Two model simplification methods are applied to these high-order models: the phase response curves (PRC) and the Principal Orthogonal Decomposition (POD). The variational calculus and a gradient descent algorithm are applied for solving the optimal light input in the high-order models. As the results of the gradient descent algorithm rely heavily on the initial guesses, we use the optimal control of the PRC and the simplified model to initialize the gradient descent algorithm. In this paper, we present: (1) the application of PRC and direct shooting algorithm on high-order nonlinear models; (2) a general process for solving the minimum-time optimal control problem on high-order models; (3) the impacts of minimum-time optimal light on circadian gene transcription and protein synthesis.

Actigraphy has been widely used for the analysis of circadian rhythm. Current practice applies regression analysis to data from multiple days to estimate the circadian phase. This paper presents a filtering method for online processing of biometric data to estimate the circadian phase. We apply the proposed method on actigraphy data of fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster).