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This article investigates the relationship between income inequality and firms' locations and product choices. Using detailed information on income at a regionally disaggregated level and individual data on Austrian restaurants, we demonstrate that firm conduct crucially depends on the distribution (in addition to the level) of income. Local markets with higher income inequality are characterized by a larger number of firms, offering a broader range of products and product variants that are on average less common. These findings indicate that local demand is substantially in uenced by the heterogeneity in consumers' income endowments, resulting in large differences in product variety.

Vollkommene Konkurrenz auf Märkten ist dadurch charakterisiert, dass die Handlungen einzelner Wirtschaftssubjekte für alle anderen Wirtschaftssubjekte irrelevant sind. Jeder Einzelne kann das Gesamtergebnis (z.B. die Preise) auf einem Markt nicht unmittelbar beeinflussen; im Begriff des "atomistischen Marktes" wird dies auch bildlich ausgedrückt. Diese Marktform ist weniger als Beschreibung tatsächlicher Märkte gedacht, sondern als Gedankenexperiment zur möglichst einfachen Beschreibung einer Extremsituation. In der überwiegenden Zahl von Märkten der Agrar- und Ernährungswirtschaft spielen die Handlungen einzelner Anbieter sehr wohl eine wesentliche Rolle für das Gleichgewicht auf dem Gesamtmarkt: Konkurrenz ist typischerweise unvollkommen. Zahlreiche Beispiele aus der Wertschöpfungskette der Land- und Ernährungswirtschaft, von der Erzeugung wichtiger Vorleistungen bis zum Konsum des Endproduktes, können dies verdeutlichen. Der Weltmarkt der Produktion von Mineraldünger beispielsweise wird von etwa zehn international tätigen Unternehmen dominiert. Hohe Entwicklungskosten für neues Saatgut sind ein wesentlicher Grund für die zunehmende Marktkonzentration im Bereich der Pflanzenzüchtung; auch hier sind weltweit nur noch wenige Anbieter tätig. Besonders ausgeprägt ist der Konzentrationsprozess auch im Lebensmitteleinzelhandel. Handelsketten können im Einkauf in Verhandlungen mit den Nahrungsmittelproduzenten möglicherweise ihre Verhandlungsmacht geltend machen. Zudem wirft die hohe Anbieterkonzentration im Lebensmitteleinzelhandel die Frage auf, ob Konsumenten überhöhte Preise für einzelne Lebensmittel zahlen. In diesem Kapitel werden folgende Themen besprochen: - Es wird gezeigt, wie sich Preise in unterschiedlichen Marktformen bilden und welche Folgen unvollkommene Konkurrenz (Marktmacht) für die Güterpreise hat. - Verschiedene Formen strategischer Interaktion werden unterschieden und deren Folgen für das Marktgleichgewicht (kurz- und langfristig) beleuchtet. - Methoden und Probleme der empirischen Messung von Marktmacht werden erläutert und an Hand von Fallbeispielen illustriert. - Wir beschreiben Interaktionen zwischen den Akteuren innerhalb der Wertschöpfungskette bei der Preisbildung. - Die institutionellen Rahmenbedingungen der europäischen Wettbewerbspolitik sowie Beispiele wettbewerbspolitischer Eingriffe werden erläutert. (...)

We investigate how consumer information affects price adjustment in the Austrian retail gasoline market. Our measure of consumer information is obtained from detailed census data on commuting behavior, as commuters can freely sample prices on their commuting route and are thus better informed about prices. A threshold error-correction model suggests that prices adjust more quickly if cost shocks exceed certain thresholds. Parametric and semi-parametric regressions show that a larger share of informed consumers increases both transmission speed and pass-through elasticity. Better informed consumers reduce the asymmetry in thresholds, but have no effect on the asymmetry in the speed of adjustment.

We empirically investigate the importance of centrality (holding a central position in a spatial network) for strategic interaction in pricing for the Austrian retail gasoline market. Results from spatial autoregressive models suggest that the gasoline station located most closely to the market center - defined as the 1-median location - exerts the strongest effect on pricing decisions of other stations. We conclude that centrality influences firms' pricing behavior and further find that the importance of centrality increases with market size. (authors' abstract), Series: Department of Economics Working Paper Series

We examine the relationship between information and price dispersion in the retail gasoline market. We first show that the clearinghouse models in the spirit of Stahl (1989) generate an inverted-U relationship between information and price dispersion. We construct a new measure of information based on precise commuter data from Austria. Regular commuters can freely sample gasoline prices on their commuting route, providing us with spatial variation in the share of informed consumers. We use detailed information on gas station level price to construct various measures of price dispersion. Our empirical estimates of the relationship are in line with the theoretical predictions.

We investigate the incentive to provide goods of high quality in a vertically related market for different types of business organizations, a farmer-owned cooperative and an investor-owned firm. Contrary to the firm, the cooperative is characterized by decentralized decision making, which gives rise to overproduction and problems coordinating the quality decisions of its members (free riding). Comparing both manufacturers acting as monopolists we show that the cooperative will never supply final goods of higher quality than the firm, and that the problem of quality coordination is mitigated if the cooperative succeeds in preventing overproduction. When a cooperative faces competition of an investor-owned firm (mixed duopoly), it will – except in one limit case – never produce final goods of a higher quality than the firm and will deliver lower quality in a number of scenarios.

We investigate the impact of decentralised decision making on product quality. Comparing a cooperative (decentralized decision making) and a firm (centralized decision making) suggests that members of the cooperative have an incentive to produce too much and to free-ride on quality. Free-riding on quantity and quality are interrelated which implies that the final product of the cooperative can even be of higher quality than its entrepreneurial twin, despite free-riding on quality. Whether or not cooperatives deliver higher quality products depends on the way in which the quality of the final product is determined from the quality levels of the inputs delivered (quality aggregation) as well as the number of members of the cooperative. Empirical evidence on the Austrian wine market suggests that wines produced by cooperatives tend to be of significantly lower quality, ceteris paribus.

Price promotions are important marketing activities for (food) retailers; brand loyalty is a major requisite to foster brands' assets. Several theoretical papers have analyzed the relationship between price promotions and brand loyalty resulting in mixed or perhaps contradictory outcomes; only a few empirical studies for (European) grocery markets are available to test which model(s) might be most relevant to reflect pricing strategies in food retailing. In this analysis, two detailed data sets for the German ready-to-eat breakfast cereals market are merged to investigate the relationship between price promotions and brand loyalty. We find significant empirical evidence that stronger brands tend to be promoted less frequently at lower discounts compared to weaker brands. The reason might be that price reductions are more costly for brands having loyal customers who are willing to accept higher mark-ups. Therefore stronger brands might need to come up with alternative measures to recruit new customers instead of offering attractive promotional sales.

In diesem Artikel wird ein semi-parametrisches Matching-Verfahren (Propensity Score Matching) verwendet, um die Effekte von Agrarumweltmaßnahmen und der Ausgleichszulage für benachteiligte Gebiete in Deutschland auf den Faktoreinsatz (Boden, Arbeit, Kapital, Vieh, Pflanzenschutz- und Düngemittel) und den Umsatz zu analysieren. Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen signifikant positiven Effekt beider Programme auf das betriebliche Flächenwachstum (insbesondere auf Grünland), infolgedessen sich die Viehbesatzdichte verringert. Die Teilnahme an Agrarumweltmaßnahmen bewirkt darüber hinaus eine signifikante Verringerung der Düngemittelausgaben je Hektar. Für beide Programme ist kein signifikanter Effekt auf den betrieblichen Umsatz festzustellen. Die Stärke der Programmeffekte nimmt mit zunehmender Höhe der je Hektar erhaltenen Programmzahlungen zu. The paper applies a semi-parametric matching approach (propensity score matching) to evaluate the effects of agri-environment (AE) programs and the less-favoured area (LFA) scheme on input use (land, labour, capital, livestock, fertilizer and pesticides) and farm output of individual farms in Germany. The analysis reveals a positive and significant effect of both farm programs on the area under cultivation, in particular on grassland, resulting in a decrease of cattle livestock density. Furthermore, participation to AE programs significantly reduced the purchase of fertilisers. For both farm programs, no significant effect on farm sales is observed. Furthermore, the magnitude of program effects increases along with increasing program payments.

This paper extends previous research (Pufahl and Weiss, 2009) and applies a semi-parametric propensity score matching approach to evaluate the effects of agrienvironment (AE) programs on input use and farm output of individual farms in eight Member States of the European Union. We find substantial differences in treatment effects between countries. The analysis reveals significant effects of AE participation on production (Germany, France) and farm profits (France, Ireland, United Kingdom). AE participation sporadically reduces the intensity of land use as measured by the purchase of farm chemicals (fertilizer, pesticide) and grazing livestock densities. We also find differences in the treatment effect among farms with different farm size (heterogeneous treatment effects).

Cooperatives and investor-owned firms are alternative forms of business organisation that coexist and compete in many markets. The theoretical literature has identified a number of comparative advantages and disadvantages of cooperatives. Decentralized decision making within cooperatives may lead to quality coordination problems (free-riding on product quality), for example: whereas the individual member has to bear the full costs associated with higher quality, the benefits of delivering higher quality will be shared among all members. The present paper investigates this free-riding problem in determining product quality within a marketing cooperative in a vertically related market (food chain). On the basis of a mixed-oligopoly model, we show that the free-rider problem in the supply of high-quality products might be strong enough to ensure that cooperatives will never supply higher quality than investor-owned firms. Whether the cooperative can overcome the free-riding problem and supply a final product of high quality is shown to depend on the consumer’s valuation of quality, the costs of producing high quality, the way in which the quality of the final product is determined from the quality levels of the inputs delivered, the possibilities in controlling product quantity as well as on the number of members of the cooperative.

The paper applies a non-parametric propensity score matching approach to evaluate the effects of two types of farm programs (agri-environment (AE) programs and the less favoured area (LFA) scheme) on input use and farm output of individual farms in Germany. The analysis reveals a positive and significant treatment effect of the LFA scheme for farm sales and the area under cultivation. Participants in AE schemes are found to significantly increase the area under cultivation (in particular grassland), resulting in a decrease of livestock densities. Furthermore, participation in AE programs significantly reduced the purchase of farm chemicals (fertilizer, pesticide). We also find substantial differences in the treatment effect between individual farms (heterogeneous treatment effects). Farms which can generate the largest benefit from the program are most likely to participate.

The present paper investigates the free-riding problem in determining product quality within cooperatives in a vertically related market. Whereas the individual member has to bear all costs associated with higher quality, the benefits of delivering higher quality have to be shared among all members. On the basis of a Mixed-Oligopoly model, we show that the free-rider problem in the supply of high-quality products, although important for the members of the cooperative, may not be strong enough to ensure that firms will always supply higher quality than cooperatives. Whether the cooperative can overcome the free-riding problem and supply a final product of high quality is shown to depend on the consumer's valuation of quality, the costs of producing high quality, the way in which the quality of the final product is determined from the quality levels of the inputs delivered as well as on the number of members of the cooperative.

Based on the model of consumers' variety-seeking behavior introduced by Anderson et al. (1992), this paper derives a hedonic price function for a households' consumption bundle. The price a consumer pays for her consumption bundle reflects the values of the underlying attributes of goods purchased but also accounts for any preference for variety that she might have. The empirical analysis is conducted for 3,240 German households and their expenditure on 182 different soft drinks over a six-month period. We find that consumers have a preference for variety in food consumption, ceteris paribus. Furthermore, the per-unit price is found to be significantly larger for higher income households, as well as households where the principal wage earner has a high level of education. Larger households tend to spend less on soft drinks per unit.

This study examines and compares farmers' succession plans and actual succession behaviour and finds that the farm operator's age and regional variables influence both. We also find a discrepancy between intention and actual behaviour which is significantly related to the farm operator's age. Whereas the likelihood of planned succession is overestimated significantly for younger farm operators, the opposite is observed once the farm operator's age exceeds 65 years. Therefore, stated plans have only a negligible value in predicting the observed behaviour and farm operator's statements on the timing of succession may not provide enough information on the grounds of designing structural policies in agriculture.

The present study examines family and farm characteristics affecting the choice and the timing of intergenerational farm transfers. Using survey data which are linked to accounting data for 272 farms in Northern Germany, we use a probit approach to examine whether specific farm and family characteristics are related to the likelihood of succession within a given period. We go beyond the existing literature by applying a competing risk approach to study the process and thus the timing, respectively of the two competing events - succession or exit from farming. We find that farm characteristics significantly influence succession considerations to the extent that they affect the value of the farm for the potential successor.

The paper analyzes the relationship between off-farm labor allocation and on-farm enterprise diversification as farm household income stabilization strategies with census data from the federal state of Upper Austria, Austria. The results suggest that both on-farm diversification and off-farm labor allocation are related to farm and household characteristics. Larger farm households tend to allocate more labor to off-farm income activities.

The present study examines family and farm characteristics affecting the choice and the timing of intergenerational farm transfers. Using survey data which are linked to accounting data for 272 farms in Northern Germany, we use a probit approach to examine whether specific farm and family characteristics are related to the likelihood of succession within a given period. We go beyond the existing literature by applying a competing risk approach to study the process and thus the timing, respectively of the two competing events - succession or exit from farming. We find that farm characteristics significantly influence succession considerations to the extent that they affect the value of the farm for the potential successor.

The present study examines family and farm characteristics affecting the choice and the timing of intergenerational farm transfers. Using survey data which are linked to accounting data for 272 farms in Northern Germany, we use a probit approach to examine whether specific farm and family characteristics are related to the likelihood of succession within a given period. We go beyond the existing literature by applying a competing risk approach to study the process and thus the timing, respectively of the two competing events succession or exit from farming. We find that farm characteristics significantly influence succession considerations to the extent that they affect the value of the farm for the potential successor.

The last couple of decades have seen an increased retail concentration around the world, particularly in Europe. Views on the welfare implications of this severe change are controversial. Consumers might benefit because larger stores (owned by larger retailer chains) offer more product choices. On the other hand, there is concern that buyer power may force manufacturers ?to reduce investment in new products or product improvements? [1]. This paper?s aim is to analyse whether retailer power affects food manufacturing firms incentives to invest in innovation of high quality food products. On the basis of a formal model, we find that retailer market power reduces upstream firms incentives to introduce new products. This proposition is tested empirically on the basis of firm level data from a survey of food manufacturing firms carried out in 2002 in Germany. Results of multinomial logit model show a moderate and negative impact of retailer market power on innovation of regular quality products. No such negative impact is observed for premium quality products. Producers of premium products thus seem to more effectively resist retailer market power in product innovation

Substantial increases in retail concentration (particularly in Europe) raise concerns about the welfare implications for consumers. In a formal model, we argue that retailer market power reduces upstream firms incentives to introduce new products. On the basis of a survey of firms in German food manufacturing, the results of a negative binomial regression model supports the proposition of a detrimental effect of retailer market power on product innovations. This effect is mitigated if manufacturing firms also have some market power (countervailing power). Innovations are positively related to firm?s market share in food manufacturing.

This paper investigates the relationship between farm exits and various farm, family, and regional characteristics during the period of 1991 to 1999. Using county-level data for 326 regions in western Germany, econometric cross section estimations indicate that exits from farming are strongly influenced by farm and family characteristics. In particular, exit rates are higher in regions with smaller farms. Further, farm exits are closely related to retirement and succession considerations. Exit rates are lower in regions with a high share of part-time farms, which indicates that off-farm income has a stabilizing impact on structural change in agriculture.

It is well documented that a large share of new products does not survive their first year in the market. Research reported in this paper examined the relationship between product quality and innovation success. In contrast to existing product innovation literature that focused on industrial goods, this study used food product data from a 2002 German food manufacturing firm survey. Results of Sample Selection Model suggest that premium quality increases product?s success rate. Furthermore, firm size has a significant positive impact on success rate. Intensity of competition as well as retailers? market power reduce product?s success rate.

This study examines family farms and characteristics affecting farm succession. Based on a farm survey, three aspects of succession are analysed in the paper: the probability of family succession; the likelihood of having a successor designated; and the timing of succession. Large and specialised farms are more likely to be transferred within the family and to have appointed a successor. The number of family members, as well as the experience of farm operator, is also significantly related to the succession behaviour. The probabilities of succession, and of having a successor, first increase with age and then decline again. Furthermore, timing of succession is delayed as the farm holder ages, suggesting most farm operators? succession plans to be inconsistent over time. In addition, we find a significant interrelationship between the different aspects of succession indicating that decisions on family succession, the designation of a successor, as well as the timing of succession, are not separable.

This study examines family farms and characteristics affecting farm succession. Based on a farm survey, three aspects of succession are analysed in the paper: the probability of family succession; the likelihood of having a successor designated; and the timing of succession. Large and specialised farms are more likely to be transferred within the family and to have appointed a successor. The number of family members, as well as the experience of farm operator, is also significantly related to the succession behaviour. The probabilities of succession, and of having a successor, first increase with age and then decline again. Furthermore, timing of succession is delayed as the farm holder ages, suggesting most farm operator's succession plans to be inconsistent over time. In addition, we find a significant interrelationship between the different aspects of succession indicating that decisions on family succession, the designation of a successor, as well as the timing of succession, are not separable.

Trotz der vielfach betonten Bedeutung von Diversifikationsstrategien vor dem Hintergrund zunehmender Liberalisierung vieler Agrarmärkte existieren nur wenige empirische Arbeiten zum Zusammenhang zwischen Diversifikation und dem Erfolg landwirtschaftlicher Unternehmen. Der vorliegende Beitrag basiert auf dem empirischen Ansatz von Oustapassidis (1992), der den Einfluss der Diversifikation in verwandte und unverwandte Produktbereiche auf das Wachstum (als ein Erfolgsmaß) von Unternehmen untersucht und überträgt ihn auf landwirtschaftliche Unternehmen in Schleswig-Holstein. Die Ergebnisse von Fixed- und Random-Effekt-Schätzungen des Wachstums von rd. 3.900 Unternehmen für den Zeitraum von 1988/89 bis 1997/98 zeigen, dass Unternehmen mit hoher Diversifikation in verwandte Produktbereiche ein höheres Wachstum aufweisen, während die Diversifikation in nicht-verwandte Produktbereiche die Wachstumsrate signifikant reduziert. Weiterhin hat die Betriebsgröße zum Ausgangszeitpunkt einen signifikant negativen Einfluss auf das Wachstum, so dass von ß-Konvergenz in den Wachstumsraten auszugehen ist.