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We present bathymetry and hydrological observations collected in the summer of 2014 from two fjord systems in southeastern Greenland with a multibeam sonar system. Our results provide a detailed bathymetric map of the fjord complex around the island of Skjoldungen in Skjoldungen Fjord and the outer part of Timmiarmiut Fjord and show far greater depths compared to the International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean. The hydrography collected shows different properties in the fjords with the bottom water masses below 240 m in Timmiarmiut Fjord being 1–2 °C warmer than in the two fjords around Skjoldungen, but data also illustrate the influence of sills on the exchange of deeper water masses within fjords. Moreover, evidence of subglacial discharge in Timmiarmiut Fjord, which is consistent with satellite observations of ice mélange set into motion, adds to our increasing understanding of the distribution of subglacial meltwater.

We study mass wasting along the Middle America Trench (MAT), a subduction zone dominated by tectonic erosion, using a comprehensive data set of seafloor relief. We integrate previous studies of long-term tectonic processes to analyze how they influence the evolution of the slope structure and precondition the continental slope for mass wasting. We have used the distribution of an inventory of 147 slope failure structures along the MAT to discuss their relation to subduction erosion. We interpret that preconditioning of the slope by long-term tectonics, interacts in a shorter-term scale with features on the under-thrusting oceanic plate to modulate the abundance and types of mass wasting phenomena. The complex origin of the incoming oceanic plate has produced abrupt lateral changes in plate age, crustal thickness, relief, and response to bending deformation at the trench, leading to its partitioning into 6 segments. We found that the continental-slope failure style and abundance are partitioned into 6 segments that spatially match the ocean plate segments

A ship-based acoustic mapping campaign was conducted at the exit of Ilulissat Ice Fjord of West Greenland and in the sedimentary basin of Disko Bay west of the fjord mouth. Submarine landscape and sediment distribution patterns represented by five acoustic facies types represent glaciomarine sediment facies types that are related to variations in the past position and relative motion of the glacier front. Asymmetric ridges on the shelf that form a curved entity and a large sill at the fjord mouth represent moraines that depict at least two relatively stable positions of the ice front in the Disko Bay and at the fjord mouth. Comparable ice-end features are not observed seaward of the East Greenland Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier, although both glaciers are comparable in their latitudinal position, present size and present role for the ice discharge from the Inland Ice sheet. Apparently, the retreat of the Greenland Inland Ice after the last maximum expansion was a more discontinuous process on the West Greenland Shelf than on the East Greenland Shelf. The Iceberg Bank, a prominent sill at the fjord exit appears to play an important role for the sedimentation after the retreat of the ice front from the shelf was completed. The retreat of the glacier behind the Iceberg Bank into the inner fjord is marked by a reorganization of sediment delivery in Disko Bay, as most of the till is now deposited within the fjord. Two linear clusters of pockmarks in the center of the sedimentary basin seem to be linked to methane release due to dissociation of gas hydrates, a process driven by fast crustal uplift of the Greenland Shelf. The orientation of these clusters appears to reflect a migration path that is defined by a buried structure which we could not resolve.

The central Chilean subduction zone between 35°S and 37°S was investigated in order to identify, document and possibly understand fluid flow and fluid venting within the forearc region. Several areas were mapped using multibeam bathymetry and backscatter, high-resolution sidescan sonar, chirp subbottom profiling and reflection seismic data. On a subsequent cruise ground-truthing observations were made using a video sled. In general, this dataset shows surprisingly little evidence of fluid venting along the mid-slope region, in contrast to other subduction zones such as Central America and New Zealand. There were abundant indications of active and predominantly fossil fluid venting along the upper slope between 36.5°S and 36.8°S at the seaward margin of an intraslope basin. Here, backscatter anomalies suggest widespread authigenic carbonate deposits, likely the result of methane-rich fluid expulsion. There is unpublished evidence that these fluids are of biogenic origin and generated within the slope sediments, similar to other accretionary margins but in contrast to the erosional margin off Central America, where fluids have geochemical signals indicating an origin from the subducting plate.

We study mass wasting along the Middle America Trench (MAT), a subduction zone dominated by tectonic erosion, using a comprehensive data set of seafloor relief. We integrate previous studies of long-term tectonic processes to analyze how they influence the evolution of the slope structure and precondition the continental slope for mass wasting. We have used the distribution of an inventory of 147 slope failure structures along the MAT to discuss their relation to subduction erosion. We interpret that preconditioning of the slope by long-term tectonics, interacts in a shorter-term scale with features on the under-thrusting oceanic plate to modulate the abundance and types of mass wasting phenomena. The complex origin of the incoming oceanic plate has produced abrupt lateral changes in plate age, crustal thickness, relief, and response to bending deformation at the trench, leading to its partitioning into 6 segments. We found that the continental-slope failure style and abundance are partitioned into 6 segments that spatially match the ocean plate segments

Earthquake history shows that the Sunda subduction zone of the Indonesian margin produces great earthquakes offshore Sumatra, whereas earthquakes of comparable magnitude are lacking offshore Java and the Lesser Sunda islands. Morphological structures in multibeam bathymetric data across the forearc relate with the extent of the seismogenic zone. Its updip limit corresponds to the slope break, most distinct off Java and Lesser Sunda islands, where we find coincident narrow, uniform, continuous outer arc ridges. Their landward termination and a shallow upper plate mantle mark the downdip limit of the seismogenic zone. In contrast the outer arc ridges off Sumatra are wider and partly elevated above sea level forming the forearc islands. The downdip limit of the seismogenic zone coincides with a deeper upper plate mantle. Sunda Strait marks a transition zone between the Sumatra and Java margins. We find the differences along the Sunda margin, especially the wider extent of the seismogenic zone off Sumatra, producing larger earthquakes, to result from the interaction of different age and subduction direction of the oceanic plate. We attribute a major role to the sediment income and continental/oceanic upper plate nature of Sumatra/Java influencing the composition and deformation style along the forearc and subduction fault.

Based on multibeam bathymetry, high-resolution deep-towed sidescan sonar and Chirp subbottom profiling 32 cold seep sites, already identified in Sahling et al. (2008a), have been studied in an approximately 1000 km2 large area ranging from 800 to 2600 m water depth along the middle slope of the active continental margin offshore Nicaragua. Ground truthing is available from towed camera surveys and coring on seven of the structures. The seeps occur in different settings on the slope: upslope and along the headwall of large submarine slides, as isolated eroded massifs, and forming linear ridges between deeply incised canyons. The seep sites show a wide range regarding their size and morphology, their backscatter intensity patterns, their structure in subbottom profiles, and their fluid venting activity inferred from seafloor observations. Surface extension of the seep sites ranges from less than 200 to more than 1500 m in diameter, and relief height varies between no relief and 180 m. Indications of extruded materials such as mud flows are not observed in the area of the seep sites. Instead the seeps are characterized by high proportions of authigenic carbonates. The carbonates occur as crusts, detritus, or single layers embedded in the seafloor sediments. They appear as high backscatter intensities on sidescan sonar images. On some seep sites living vent fauna indicative of active seepage is observed, but gas bubbles have not been observed. To explain the high morphological variability of the features, we propose a generic model including the interaction of several processes: (1) episodic fluid venting and associated authigenic carbonate formation; (2) background sedimentation and subsidence; (3) linear erosion along canyons and denudation on the slope surface.

Cold seeps on Opouawe Bank, situated in around 1000 m water depth on the Hikurangi Margin offshore North Island. New Zealand, were investigated using multibeam bathymetry, 75 and 410 kHz sidescan sonar imagery, and 2–8 kHz Chirp sediment echosounder data. Towed video camera observations allowed ground-truthing the various geoacoustic data. At least eleven different seep locations displaying a range of seep activity were identified in the study area. The study area consists of an elongated, northward-widening ridge that is part of the accretionary Hikurangi Margin and is well separated from direct terrigenous input by margin channels surrounding the ridge. The geoacoustic signature of individual cold-seep sites ranged from smooth areas with slightly elevated backscatter intensity resulting from high gas content or the presence of near-surface gas hydrates, to rough areas with widespread patches of carbonates at the seafloor. Five cold seeps also show indications for active gas emissions in the form of acoustic plumes in the water column. Repeated sidescan sonar imagery of the plumes indicates they are highly variable in intensity and direction in the water column, probably reflecting the control of gas emission by tides and currents. Although gas emission appears strongly focused in the Wairarapa area, the actual extents of the cold seep structures are much wider in the subsurface as is shown by sediment echosounder profiles, where large gas fronts were observed.

Ilulissat Icefjord in West-Greenland is the fastest and most productive iceberg calving area outside Antarctica. Changes in climate exert a first-order control on the retreat of the icefront and the calving of icebergs. Glacial and geological processes related to iceberg calving and transport shape the morphology of the seafloor seaward of the ice front characteristically. Revealing the morphology by high-resolution bathymetric mapping helps to understand these processes. Aim of the project “Iceflow Activity” was to map the bathymetry of Ilulissat Icefjord. During the RV Maria S. Merian cruise in summer 2007 a Kongsberg EM120 and a EM1002 multibeam systems were used to map the areas in front of the fjord mouth. Closer to the ice bergs, the portable Seabeam 1180 multibeam system temporarily mounted on the small local vessel Smilla that could navigate through areas inaccessible to large research vessels. Both datasets were compiled and merged to achieve a comprehensive image of the mapped area. Continuous Parasound sediment profiling during the Merian cruise enable investigation of sedimentary structures. Different morphological features such as ridges, shaped like drumlins and valleys that could be connected to channel systems, directing debris flows to a deposition centre characterize the central part of the survey area. Hera, a series of prominent circular depressions of 80m to 150m in diameter and up to 30m deep have been found and are interpreted as pockmarks. Different formation processes for these structures have been discussed. The lack of the youngest sedimentary unit inside of the easternmost pockmarks indicated by Parasound profiles crossing different pockmarks point to active formation processes, while the westernmost pockmark seems to be inactive. The position of the recently active pockmarks and CTD measurements helped to interpret the pockmarks as structures formed by gas hydrates. The WSW – ENE alignment and a possible age decrease from W to E may indi

Six active methane seeps and one cold-water reef that may represent a relict seep were mapped at Omakere Ridge on New Zealand's Hikurangi Margin during cruises SO191 and TAN0616. Hydroacoustic flares, interpreted to be bubbles of methane rising through the water column were identified in the area. The seep sites and the cold-water reef were characterised by regions of high backscatter intensity on sidescan sonar records, or moderate backscatter intensity where the seep was located directly below the path of the sidescan towfish. The majority of sites appear as elevated features (2–4 m) in multibeam swath data. Gas blanking and acoustic turbidity were observed in sub-bottom profiles through the sites. A seismic section across two of the sites (Bear's Paw and LM-9) shows a BSR suggesting the presence of gas hydrate as well as spots of high amplitudes underneath and above the BSR indicating free gas. All sites were ground truthed with underwater video observations, which showed the acoustic features to represent authigenic carbonate rock structures. Live chemosynthetic biotic assemblages, including siboglinid tube worms, vesicomyid clams, bathymodiolin mussels, and bacterial mats, were observed at the seeps. Cold-water corals were the most conspicuous biota of the cold-water reef but widespread vesicomyid clam shells indicated past seep activity at all sites. The correlation between strong backscatter features in sidescan sonar images and seep-related seabed features is a powerful tool for seep exploration, but differentiating the acoustic features as either modern or relict seeps requires judicial analysis and is most effective when supported by visual observations.

The great Chilean earthquake of 27 February 2010 occurred along a convergent margin previously surveyed with modern geophysical methods. Modern data resolve subducting ocean plate relief that probably arrested earthquake rupture. The northern limit of rupture was at the subducted extension of Juan Fernandez Ridge (JFR). JFR relief increases as the plate is faulted during bending into the trench thereby elevating the plate boundary 1-3-km. At the intersection of relief with the trench axis turbidite transport from the south is impeded producing trench turbidite fill 2-3-km thick. The southern rupture limit coincides with the subducted projection of Mocha Fracture Zone (MFZ), a 20-km wide structure with thin fractured crust and seafloor relief to 1- km. Seismically imaged beneath the frontal sediment prism is a plate interface between accreted and subducted sediments. Farther landward, where the 2010 earthquake rupture and aftershocks occurred, the upper plate is margin framework rock and the plate interface separates this metamorphic basement from subducted sediment. These observations show that subducted lower plate high-relief can affect the spatial organization of great earthquake rupture, as can the upper plate discontinuity between a frontal accreted sediment prism and the margin framework rock.

Based on an extensive set of swath bathymetry data that covers about 72% of the Chilean continental margin between 33°S and 43°S, more than 60 submarine mass wasting features were mapped and described. They form a wide spectrum in size and apparent slide mechanism. With the exception of three Pleistocene super-scale failures, they are small if compared to mass wasting on passive continental margins. Half of the features are related to active submarine canyons. The collapse of canyon walls impinges on the open slope where thin translational slides detach from discrete horizons. Also, we identified medium-sized (5-25 km3) blocky slides that affect the lowermost continental slope, and small spoonshaped headscarps of slides, that deliver material into slope basins. A particular feature is Valdes Slide with mass wasting directed landward. We analyse the database to determine the main preconditioning factors for mass wasting along this densely populated part of the Chilean coast. Major factors are (1) slope undercutting by the incision of erosive submarine canyons, (2) slope oversteepening by active folding and faulting, and (3) accretionary wedge collapse. A major stratigraphic control on mass wasting may be offshore deposition of volcanic ash fallout. Also fluid seepage from over pressured faults tapping dewatering subducted sediments at depth may contribute to destabilization of sediments on the continental slope. The role of large thrust earthquakes that affect the region with a historical recurrence time of ~ 150 y as apparently obvious triggers is discussed in the light of the recent 27-02-2010 Mw=8.5 Maule earthquake.

Offshore south central Chile (35° S–42° S), the morphology of the lowermost continental slope and trench floor witnesses a voluminous submarine mass-wasting event. The blocky slide body deposited in the Chile Trench at 73°46´ W 35°35´ S was targeted for study during RRS JAMES COOK Cruise JC23 and termed Reloca Slide. Its size of about 24 km3, its steep and high headscarp, the spatial distribution of slide deposits and the cohesive nature of major slide blocks make it interesting to address the issue of tsunami generation. We have obtained seismic reflection data that partly reveal the internal structure of the slide body. Gravity core samples were retrieved that will allow the slide to be dated and linked to the history of sedimentation and slope stability along this particular segment of the Chilean convergent margin. At present we assume a Holocene age for the sliding event.

Crustal- and upper-mantle structures of the subduction zone in south central Chile, between 42 degrees S and 46 degrees S, are determined from seismic wide-angle reflection and refraction data, using the seismic ray tracing method to calculate minimum parameter models. Three profiles along differently aged segments of the subducting Nazca Plate were analysed in order to study subduction zone structure dependencies related to the age, that is, thermal state, of the incoming plate. The age of the oceanic crust at the trench ranges from 3 Ma on the southernmost profile, immediately north of the Chile triple junction, to 6.5 Ma old about 100 km to the north, and to 14.5 Ma old another 200 km further north, off the Island of Chiloe. Remarkable similarities appear in the structures of both the incoming as well as the overriding plate. The oceanic Nazca Plate is around 5 km thick, with a slightly increasing thickness northward, reflecting temperature changes at the time of crustal generation. The trench basin is about 2 km thick except in the south where the Chile Ridge is close to the deformation front and only a small, 800-m-thick trench infill could develop. In south central Chile, typically three quarters (1.5 km) of the trench sediments subduct below the decollement in the subduction channel. To the north and south of the study area, only about one quarter to one third of the sediments subducts, the rest is accreted above. Similarities in the overriding plate are the width of the active accretionary prism, 35-50 km, and a strong lateral crustal velocity gradient zone about 75-80 km landward from the deformation front, where landward upper-crustal velocities of over 5.0-5.4 km s