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In vitro co-culture techniques that allow the growth of plants and pathogens under controlled environmental conditions are being used to re-create host plant infection. These approaches reduce infection times, promote reproducibility, and enable a rapid evaluation of plant-pathogen interactions. As a result, these systems have become essential in breeding programs aimed at developing plant resistance to diseases. In this study, we developed and validated an in vitro co-culture system to investigate the Armillaria root rot (ARR) affecting Prunus spp. This disease, caused by fungi Armillaria spp. and Desarmillaria caespitosa, poses a severe threat to the stone and nut fruit industry due to the susceptibility of most commercial rootstocks to infection and the lack of effective management options for its control. The system consists of a fiber-supported liquid approach in sterile plastic vessels that allows a fast and reproducible fungal infection under controlled environmental conditions. The floor of the vessels was covered with a polyester-fiber matte and a germination paper that served as an interface between the mycelia and the plant roots. The vessels were subjected to inoculation with Armillaria mellea and D. caespitosa, and three Prunus genotypes ('Guardian®', 'MP-29', and Prunus cerasifera '14–4') were co-cultured with both fungi. Disease progression and plant and fungal biomass were monitored during co-culture. The presented in vitro co-culture approach facilitates the concurrent growth of Armillaria/Desarmillaria spp. and Prunus spp., excluding most of the limitations associated with greenhouses and field experiments. This system provides consistent and reproducible conditions for investigating a prominent plant disease affecting Prunus spp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reflects on the Federal Communications Commission's (FCC's) E-Rate program and the three aspects of the program where the FCC has lacked foresight and management. These aspects include program management has lacked clear lines of responsibility and accountability, the actual requirements adopted by the FCC through competitive bidding have resulted in a "form over substance" process, and the FCC set forth only vague and open-ended standard as to the nature of equipment and services to be funded. The E-Rate program was acclaimed for connecting the nation's schools and libraries to the Internet.

This article presents a brief informationon various major court decisions in the U.S. in the year 2003. The case named Ruggiero v. FCC is discussed first. The issue revolving around this case was whether the character qualifications in the Radio Broadcasting Preservation Act of 2000, violate the First Amendment of the Constitution of the United States. Denying the petition to review, the court ruled that the Radio Broadcasting Preservation Act does not on its face violate the First Amendment. Another case discussed is named as Ting v. AT& T. The issue in this case was Issue whether Sections 201(b) and 202(a) of the Communications Act preempt the application of state consumer protection and contract laws to contracts established by telecommunications carriers with their residential customers. The court ruled that the Sections 201(b) and 202(a) do not preempt the application of state law because state law is now the congressionally intended method by which to enforce the purposes of those sections.