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Background: Accurate volume status assessment and dry weight achievement are the most challenging goals for a nephrologist. We aimed to evaluate the role of ultrasonographic parameters including lung ultrasound and inferior vena cava (IVC) measurements as practical methods of volume status assessment in children on hemodialysis by comparing them with established techniques, such as clinical evaluation and bioimpedance spectroscopy., Methods: A prospective cross-sectional study compared pre- and post-dialysis volume status using bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) parameters and clinical data with ultrasonographic lung B-lines and IVC parameters in children on regular hemodialysis., Results: A total 60 children (mean age 9.4 ± 2.8 years) were enrolled. Twenty patients (33.3%) were clinically overloaded to varying degrees (17 patients had mild to moderate signs of fluid overload and 3 patients had moderate to severe signs of fluid overload). All other patients (66.7%) were clinically euvolemic. Sonographic parameters were significantly lower post-dialysis than pre-dialysis, including lung B-line count and IVC diameter. IVC collapsibility index mean was significantly higher post-dialysis than pre-dialysis. There was a significant correlation between the lung B-line count, IVC parameters, and BIS-measured overhydration both before and after hemodialysis. Nine patients had ≥ 8 B-lines post-dialysis, only three of them were hypertensive., Conclusions: Clinical criteria alone are not specific for determining accurate fluid status in pediatric hemodialysis patients. Lung B-line score, IVC parameters, and BIS may be complementary to each other and to clinical data. Lung B-lines outperform IVC measurements and BIS in subclinical volume overload detection in pediatric hemodialysis patients., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a life-threatening complication of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). Prerenal acute kidney injury (AKI) is associated with profound hypovolemia and reduced renal perfusion. Results regarding hyperchloremia-associated AKI in patients with DKA are conflicting; we therefore investigated the potential relationship between hyperchloremia status and the risk of developing AKI. This single-center cohort study included 113 newly diagnosed T1DM patients with DKA admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit. Laboratory parameters, including Na, K, urea, creatinine, and chloride levels, were retrospectively reviewed at the time of presentation and at 12, 24 and 36 h. AKI was defined using the eGFR according to the pediatric RIFLE classification criteria. Twenty-two (19.5%) of the 113 patients were in the AKI group. Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed significant (P values ≤ 0.01) time interaction effects within the groups based on the eGFR and the serum chloride, hyperchloremia, and phosphate levels. Serum chloride levels did not differ between the groups during the first 12 h (p > 0.05) but were significantly greater in the AKI group than in the non-AKI group at 24 h and 36 h (p < 0.01). The final DKA resolution time was significantly greater in the AKI group than in the non-AKI group [22.2 (9.5) vs. 17.0 (12.0) h, respectively; p = 0.03]. However, the groups had similar lengths of hospital stay [13.0 (8.0) days vs. 12.0 (4.0) days, respectively; p = 0.17].Conclusions: Hyperchloremia may be iatrogenic rather than causative during treatment. This may worsen renal failure and prolong the recovery and treatment time for DKA patients. What is Known? • Acute kidney injury resulting from severe volume depletion is a common occurrence in diabetic ketoacidosis and typically requires significant volume replacement therapy. • In recent years, hyperchloremia has been associated with increased risks of AKI, morbidity, and mortality in some conditions, such as diabetic ketoacidosis. What is New? • The incidence of hyperchloremia increases over time during the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. • Hyperchloremia may be an iatrogenic element rather than a cause of acute kidney injury during the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

The purpose of this study was to determine the correlation of different methods of assessing fluid overload and determine which metrics are associated with development of acute kidney injury (AKI) in the period immediately following Norwood palliation. This was a retrospective single-center study of Norwood patients from January 2011 through January 2021. AKI was defined using the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Patients were separated into two groups: those with AKI and those without. A logistic regression analysis was conducted with AKI at any point in the study period as the dependent variable and clinical and laboratory data as independent variables. Analysis was conducted as a stepwise regression. The coefficients from the logistic regression were then used to develop a cumulative AKI risk score. Spearman correlations were conducted to analyze the correlation of fluid markers. 116 patients were included, and 49 (42.4%) developed AKI. The duration of open chest, duration of mechanical ventilation, need for dialysis, need for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and inpatient mortality were associated with AKI (p ≤ 0.05). Stepwise logistic regression demonstrated the following significant independent associations AKI: age at Norwood in days (p < 0.01), blood urea nitrogen (p < 0.01), central venous pressure (p = 0.04), and renal oxygen extraction ratio (p < 0.01). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for the logistic regression was 0.74. The fluid markers had weak R-value. Urea, central venous pressure, and renal oxygen extraction ratio are associated with AKI after the Norwood operation. Common clinical metrics used to assess fluid overload are poorly correlated with each other for postoperative Norwood patients., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

Background: Fluid overload (FO) subjects patients with severe aortic stenosis (AS) to increased risk for heart failure and death after valve replacement and can be objectively quantified using bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS)., Objectives: The authors hypothesized that in AS patients with concomitant FO, BIS-guided decongestion could improve prognosis and quality of life following transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR)., Methods: This randomized, controlled trial enrolled 232 patients with severe AS scheduled for TAVR. FO was defined using a portable whole-body BIS device according to previously established cutoffs (≥1.0 L and/or ≥7%). Patients with FO (n = 111) were randomly assigned 1:1 to receive BIS-guided decongestion (n = 55) or decongestion by clinical judgment alone (n = 56) following TAVR. Patients without FO (n = 121) served as a control cohort. The primary endpoint was the composite of hospitalization for heart failure and/or all-cause death at 12 months. The secondary endpoint was the change from baseline to 12 months in the Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire., Results: The occurrence of the primary endpoint at 12 months was significantly lower in the BIS-guided vs the non-BIS-guided decongestion group (7/55 [12.7%, all deaths] vs 18/56 [32.1%, 9 hospitalizations for heart failure and 9 deaths]; HR: 0.36; 95% CI: 0.15-0.87; absolute risk reduction = -19.4%). Outcomes in the BIS-guided decongestion group were identical to the euvolemic control group (log-rank test, P = 0.7). BIS-guided decongestion was also associated with a higher increase in the Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire score from baseline compared to non-BIS-guided decongestion (P = 0.001)., Conclusions: In patients with severe AS and concomitant FO, quantitatively guided decongestive treatment and associated intensified management post-TAVR was associated with improved outcomes and quality of life compared to decongestion by clinical judgment alone. (Management of Fluid Overload in Patients Scheduled for Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement [EASE-TAVR]; NCT04556123)., Competing Interests: Funding Support and Author Disclosures This study was supported by the Austrian Society of Cardiology. Dr Dannenberg has received consulting fees from Abbott; and has received educational grants from Edwards Lifesciences. Dr Kammerlander has received speaker fees from Bayer and Boehringer Ingelheim; has received advisory board honoraria from Boehringer Ingelheim; and has received research grants from Pfizer. Dr Hengstenberg has received proctoring/speaker fees from Boston Scientific and Edwards Lifesciences; and has received institutional research grants from Abbott, Boston Scientific, Edwards Lifesciences, and Medtronic). Dr Mascherbauer has received proctor fees from Abbott and Edwards Lifesciences; has received consulting fees from Boston Scientific, Edwards Lifesciences, and Shockwave Medical; and has received educational grants from Abbott, Boston Scientific, and Edwards Lifesciences. Dr Nitsche has received speaker fees/institutional research grants from Pfizer; and has received advisory board honoraria from Prothena). All other authors have reported that they have no relationships relevant to the contents of this paper to disclose., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Colorectal villous tumors secrete large amounts of mucus that can cause electrolyte abnormalities and dehydration, a condition known as electrolyte depletion syndrome. A woman in her 70s, who had been underweight for 10 years with a body mass index(BMI)of 16, was admitted to our hospital with electrolyte abnormalities, renal disorders, and rectal tumors. The electrolyte abnormalities and renal disorders were corrected relatively quickly with supplemental fluid therapy. Notably, 1,000 g of mucus stool per day was observed; subsequently, a lower gastrointestinal endoscopy revealed a circumferential villous tumor in the Rb of the rectum, which was biopsied and diagnosed as rectal cancer and electrolyte depletion syndrome. The patient was temporarily discharged from the hospital; however, several days later, the electrolyte abnormalities and renal disorders recurred. The patient was readmitted to the hospital and underwent robot-assisted Hartmann's surgery after improvement of the general condition of the patient. Postoperative pathology revealed papillary adenocarcinoma with SM depth, and the patient progressed without recurrence or relapse of electrolyte depletion syndrome.

Kidney transplantation is the optimal therapeutic approach for individuals with end-stage kidney disease. The Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients has reported a continuous rise in the total number of kidney transplants performed in the United States, with 25,500 new kidney recipients in 2022 alone. Despite an improved glomerular filtration rate, the post-transplant period introduces a unique set of electrolyte abnormalities that differ from those encountered in chronic kidney disease. A variety of factors contribute to the high prevalence of hypomagnesemia, hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis, hypercalcemia, and hypophosphatemia seen after kidney transplantation. These include the degree of allograft function, immunosuppressive medications and their diverse mechanisms of action, and metabolic changes after transplant. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the key aspects surrounding the most commonly encountered electrolyte and acid-base abnormalities in the post-transplant setting., (Copyright © 2024 National Kidney Foundation, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Patients with chronic kidney disease face a high risk of sudden cardiac death, particularly in more advanced stages of renal dysfunction. Ventricular arrhythmias are prevalent and contribute to the heightened cardiovascular mortality. This review aims to explore the intricate interplay of disease-specific risk factors, arrhythmic triggers, and electrolyte disorders that amplify susceptibility to ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death in this population and influence the efficacy of available treatments., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Medizin Verlag GmbH, ein Teil von Springer Nature.)

Background: Mechanical bowel preparation (MBP) involves the cleansing of bowel excreta and secretions using methods such as preoperative oral laxatives, retrograde enemas, and dietary adjustments. When combined with oral antibiotics, preoperative MBP can effectively lower the risk of anastomotic leakage, minimize the occurrence of postoperative infections, and reduce the likelihood of other complications. To study the effects of MBP under the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) concept on postoperative electrolyte disorders and functional recovery in older people with urological tumors undergoing robot-assisted surgery., Methods: Older people with urological tumors undergoing robot-assisted surgery were randomly divided into two groups. The experimental group (n = 76) underwent preoperative MBP, while the control group (n = 72) did not. The differences in electrolyte levels and functional recovery between the two groups after radical surgery for urological tumors were observed., Results: The incidence of postoperative electrolyte disorders was significantly higher in the experimental group compared to the control group, with incidence rates of 42.1% and 19.4%, respectively (P < 0.05). Subgroup analysis showed that the electrolyte disorder was age-related (P < 0.05). There were no significant differences between the two groups in terms of postoperative complications, gastrointestinal function recovery, laboratory indicators of infection, body temperature, and length of hospital stay (P > 0.05)., Conclusion: Under the accelerated recovery background, preoperative MBP increases the risk of postoperative electrolyte disorders in older people with urological tumors and does not reduce the incidence of postoperative complications or promote postoperative functional recovery., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Introduction: Fluid overload is a known complication in patients with diabetes mellitus, particularly those with cardiovascular and/or chronic kidney disease (CKD). This study investigates the impact of fluid overload on healthcare utilisation and its association with diabetes-related complications., Method: Electronic medical records from the SingHealth Diabetes Registry (2013-2022) were analysed. Hospitalisations due to fluid overload were identified using International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision (ICD-10) discharge codes. Trends were examined using Joinpoint regression, and associations were assessed with generalised estimating equation models., Results: Over a period of 10 years, 259,607 individuals treated at primary care clinics and tertiary hospitals were studied. The incidence of fluid overload-related hospitalisations decreased from 2.99% (n=2778) in 2013 to 2.18% (n=2617) in 2017. However, this incidence increased from 2.42% (n=3091) in 2018 to 3.71% (n=5103) in 2022. The strongest associations for fluid overload-related hospitalisation were found with CKD stages G5 (odds ratio [OR] 6.61, 95% confidence interval [CI] 6.26-6.99), G4 (OR 5.55, 95% CI 5.26-5.86) and G3b (OR 3.18, 95% CI 3.02-3.35), as well as with ischaemic heart disease (OR 3.97, 95% CI 3.84-4.11), acute myocardial infarction (OR 3.07, 95% CI 2.97-3.18) and hypertension (OR 3.90, 95% CI 3.45-4.41). Additionally, the prevalence of stage G5 CKD among patients with fluid overload increased between 2018 and 2022., Conclusion: Our study revealed a significant increase in fluid overload-related hospitalisations and extended lengths of stay, likely driven by severe CKD. This underscores an urgent need for initiatives aimed at slowing CKD progression and reducing fluid overload-related hospitalisations in diabetes patients., Competing Interests: All authors declare no relevant conflict of interest and no financial interest in this manuscript.

Over the past two decades, our understanding of the impact of acute kidney injury, disorders of fluid balance, and their interplay have increased significantly. In recent years, the epidemiology and impact of fluid balance, including the pathologic state of fluid overload on outcomes has been studied extensively across multiple pediatric and neonatal populations. A detailed understating of fluid balance has become increasingly important as it is recognized as a target for intervention to continue to work to improve outcomes in these populations. In this review, we provide an update on the epidemiology and outcomes associated with fluid balance disorders and the development of fluid overload in children with acute kidney injury (AKI). This will include a detailed review of consensus definitions of fluid balance, fluid overload, and the methodologies to define them, impact of fluid balance on the diagnosis of AKI and the concept of fluid corrected serum creatinine. This review will also provide detailed descriptions of future directions and the changing paradigms around fluid balance and AKI in critical care nephrology, including the incorporation of the sequential utilization of risk stratification, novel biomarkers, and functional kidney tests (furosemide stress test) into research and ultimately clinical care. Finally, the review will conclude with novel methods currently under study to assess fluid balance and distribution (point of care ultrasound and bioimpedance)., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to International Pediatric Nephrology Association.)

Electrolyte disorders (ED) are common in patients with cancer and in most cases, the etiologies do not differ from the general population. They may also be induced by the cancer, its therapy or paraneoplastic syndromes. ED are associated with poor outcomes, increased morbidity and mortality in this population. Hyponatremia is the most common disorder, often multifactorial, iatrogenic or secondary to the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion, usually due to small cell lung cancer. More rarely, hyponatremia may reveal adrenal insufficiency. Hypokalemia is generally multifactorial and associated with other ED. Cisplatin and ifosfamide induce proximal tubulopathies with hypokalemia and/or hypophosphatemia. Hypomagnesemia is often iatrogenic, related to cisplatin or cetuximab, but can be prevented by supplementation. Hypercalcemia can impair life quality and be life-threatening in the most severe cases. Hypocalcemia is less common and often of iatrogenic origin. Finally, the tumor lysis syndrome is a diagnostic and therapeutic emergency that affects the prognosis of patients. Its incidence tends to increase in solid oncology, related to the improvement of therapies. Prevention and early diagnosis of ED are essential to optimize the overall management of patients with underlying cancer and cancer therapy. The aim of this review is to synthesize most frequent ED and their management., (Copyright © 2023 Société Française du Cancer. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

In this longitudinal observational study, we measured urinary glucose concentration, body composition and volume status (bioimpedance spectroscopy) and plasma renin and aldosterone concentrations in n = 22 kidney transplant recipients (KTRs) initiating on SGLT2I at baseline (BL), and after 1 week and 1, 3, and 6 months. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) decreased by -2 mL/min/1.73 m 2 (IQR -10-0) after 1 week and remained stable thereafter. Urinary glucose concentration was 10 (3-24) g/g creatinine after 1 week and correlated with eGFR (r 2 = 0.273; p = 0.057). SGLT2I did not affect HbA1c, fasting blood glucose, body weight, fat or lean mass. SGLT2I decreased fluid overload dependent on baseline overhydration (OH, r 2 = 0.54, p = 0.0003) without occurrence of dehydration. Plasma aldosterone increased at day 7, while plasma renin did not change significantly. In conclusion, SGLT2I corrected fluid overload in patients with elevated overhydration at baseline, while in euvolemic KTRs fluid status remained stable without reduction of body water below the reference range, thus promoting the safety of SGLT2I therapy in patients following kidney transplantation. Glucosuria, together with effects of SGLT2I on blood glucose control and body weight, is attenuated in KTRs dependent on eGFR., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Schork, Eberbach, Artunc, Bohnert, Eisinger, Heister, Vosseler, Nadalin, Birkenfeld, Heyne and Guthoff.)

Background: Evidence examining the association of over-hydration during early life with hemodynamically significant patent ductus arteriosus (hsPDA) and other morbidities is limited. Our aim was to evaluate the association of fluid overload during the first postnatal day with hsPDA and common neonatal morbidities such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm infants., Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted enrolling infants ≤30 weeks' gestation and ≤1500 grams' birth weight, admitted to a tertiary Neonatal Unit. We calculated the fluid balance, and we estimated the incidence of infants with fluid overload ≥5% during the first postnatal day, evaluating any possible correlation with hsPDA., Results: One hundred three infants of 27.3±1.6 weeks' gestation and 1009±225 grams' birth weight were enrolled, of whom 32 (31%) were diagnosed with HsPDA. Fluid overload during the first postnatal day was recorded in 42 infants (41%). Infants with fluid overload were diagnosed with hsPDA in 48%, compared to 20% of infants without fluid overload (P=0.004). No differences were recorded in the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia or survival. Fluid overload of ≥5% was significantly correlated with hsPDA (r=0.37, P=0.003) and had an independent contribution to the risk of hsPDA (OR=1.17, 95% CI: 1.05-1.58), irrespective of other perinatal factors., Conclusions: In preterm infants, fluid overload ≥5% is significantly associated with hsPDA; therefore, fluid management during the first postnatal day should be closely regulated.

The effect of hydration in modulating metabolic disease risk is a comparatively recent concept. Diabetic patients are at increased risk of dehydration due to osmotic diuresis. Undiagnosed or undertreated hyperglycemia may lead to electrolyte imbalance and elevated renal burden of glucose excretion, which may alter fluid reabsorption in the kidney. Also, the presence of one or more contributory factors, such as inadequate fluid intake, strenuous exercise, high temperatures, alcohol consumption, diarrhea, acute illnesses, fever, nausea, and vomiting, may put diabetic patients at increased risk of dehydration and electrolyte imbalance. Certain antidiabetic agents used by diabetic patients may cause fluid retention/deficits and/or electrolyte abnormalities in a few patients. Thus, drinking ample amounts of water and fluids with appropriate electrolyte composition is important to prevent dehydration. Successful management of dehydration in patients with diabetes is an unmet need and can best be accomplished by maintaining adequate hydration status., (© Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 2024.)

Objectives: To evaluate the association between postoperative cumulative fluid balance (FB) and development of chylothorax in neonates after cardiac surgery., Design: Multicenter, retrospective cohort identified within the Neonatal and Pediatric Heart and Renal Outcomes Network (NEPHRON) Registry., Setting: Twenty-two hospitals were involved with NEPHRON, from September 2015 to January 2018., Patients: Neonates (< 30 d old) undergoing index cardiac operation with or without cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) entered into the NEPHRON Registry. Postoperative chylothorax was defined in the Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Consortium as lymphatic fluid in the pleural space secondary to a leak from the thoracic duct or its branches., Interventions: None., Measurements and Main Results: Of the 2240 NEPHRON patients, 4% ( n = 89) were treated for chylothorax during postoperative day (POD) 2-21. Median (interquartile range [IQR]) time to diagnosis was 8 (IQR 6, 12) days. Of patients treated for chylothorax, 81 of 89 (91%) had CPB and 68 of 89 (76%) had Society of Thoracic Surgeons-European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery Congenital Heart Surgery 4-5 operations. On bivariate analysis, chylothorax patients had higher POD 1 FB (3.2 vs. 1.1%, p = 0.014), higher cumulative POD 2 FB (1.5 vs. -1.5%, p < 0.001), achieved negative daily FB by POD 1 less often (69% vs. 79%, p = 0.039), and had lower POD 1 urine output (1.9 vs. 3. 2 mL/kg/day, p ≤ 0.001) than those without chylothorax. We failed to identify an association between presence or absence of chylothorax and peak FB (5.2 vs. 4.9%, p = 0.9). Multivariable analysis shows that higher cumulative FB on POD 2 was associated with greater odds (odds ratio [OR], 95% CI) of chylothorax development (OR 1.5 [95% CI, 1.1-2.2]). Further multivariable analysis shows that chylothorax was independently associated with greater odds of longer durations of mechanical ventilation (OR 5.5 [95% CI, 3.7-8.0]), respiratory support (OR 4.3 [95% CI, 2.9-6.2]), use of inotropic support (OR 2.9 [95% CI, 2.0-4.3]), and longer hospital length of stay (OR 3.7 [95% CI, 2.5-5.4])., Conclusions: Chylothorax after neonatal cardiac surgery for congenital heart disease (CHD) is independently associated with greater odds of longer duration of cardiorespiratory support and hospitalization. Higher early (POD 2) cumulative FB is associated with greater odds of chylothorax. Contemporary, prospective studies are needed to assess whether early fluid mitigation strategies decrease postoperative chylothorax development., Competing Interests: The authors recognize funding from the University of Michigan Congenital Heart Center, CHAMPS for Mott, and Michigan Institute for Clinical and Health Research (National Institutes of Health/National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences UL1TR002240). Dr. Smith received funding from Huff, Powell, and Bailey. The remaining authors have disclosed that they do not have any potential conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 by the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies.)

Background: Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a recognized comorbidity in pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), although the exact etiology is unclear. The unique physiology of DKA makes dehydration assessments challenging, and these patients potentially receive excessive amounts of intravenous fluids (IVF). We hypothesized that dehydration is over-estimated in pediatric DKA, leading to over-administration of IVF and hyperchloremia that worsens AKI., Methods: Retrospective cohort of all DKA inpatients at a tertiary pediatric hospital from 2014 to 2019. A total of 145 children were included; reasons for exclusion were pre-existing kidney disease or incomplete medical records. AKI was determined by change in creatinine during admission, and comparison to a calculated baseline value. Linear regression multivariable analysis was used to identify factors associated with AKI. True dehydration was calculated from patients' change in weight, as previously validated. Fluid over-resuscitation was defined as total fluids given above the true dehydration., Results: A total of 19% of patients met KDIGO serum creatinine criteria for AKI on admission. Only 2% had AKI on hospital discharge. True dehydration and high serum urea levels were associated with high serum creatinine levels on admission (p = 0.042; p < 0.001, respectively). Fluid over-resuscitation and hyperchloremia were associated with delayed kidney recovery (p < 0.001). Severity of initial AKI was associated with cerebral edema (p = 0.018)., Conclusions: Dehydration was associated with initial AKI in children with DKA. Persistent AKI and delay to recovery was associated with hyperchloremia and over-resuscitation with IVF, potentially modifiable clinical variables for earlier AKI recovery and reduction in long-term morbidity. This highlights the need to re-address fluid protocols in pediatric DKA., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to International Pediatric Nephrology Association.)

Aims: Fluid overload is a common manifestation of cardiovascular and kidney disease and a leading cause of hospitalizations. To identify patients at risk of recurrent severe fluid overload, we evaluated the incidence and risk factors associated with early repeat hospitalization for fluid overload among individuals with cardiovascular disease and risks., Methods: Single-center retrospective cohort study of 3423 consecutive adults with an index hospitalization for fluid overload between January 2015 and December 2017 and had cardiovascular risks (older age, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidemia, kidney disease, known cardiovascular disease), but excluded if lost to follow-up or eGFR < 15 ml/min/1.73 m 2 . The outcome was early repeat hospitalization for fluid overload within 30 days of discharge., Results: The mean age was 73.9 ± 11.6 years and eGFR was 54.1 ± 24.6 ml/min/1.73 m 2 at index hospitalization. Early repeat hospitalization for fluid overload occurred in 291 patients (8.5%). After adjusting for demographics, comorbidities, clinical parameters during index hospitalization and medications at discharge, cardiovascular disease (adjusted odds ratio, OR 1.66, 95% CI 1.27-2.17), prior hospitalization for fluid overload within 3 months (OR 2.52, 95% CI 1.17-5.44), prior hospitalization for any cause in within 6 months (OR 1.33, 95% CI 1.02-1.73) and intravenous furosemide use (OR 1.58, 95% CI 1.10-2.28) were associated with early repeat hospitalization for fluid overload. Higher systolic BP on admission (OR 0.992, 95% 0.986-0.998) and diuretic at discharge (OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.26-0.98) reduced early hospitalization for fluid overload., Conclusion: Patients at-risk of early repeat hospitalization for fluid overload may be identified using these risk factors for targeted interventions., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V.)

Background: The impact of disorders of fluid balance, including the pathologic state of fluid overload in sick children has become increasingly apparent. With this understanding, there has been a shift from application of absolute thresholds of fluid accumulation to an appreciation of the intricacies of fluid balance, including the impact of timing, trajectory, and disease pathophysiology., Methods: The 26th Acute Disease Quality Initiative was the first to be exclusively dedicated to pediatric and neonatal acute kidney injury (pADQI). As part of the consensus panel, a multidisciplinary working group dedicated to fluid balance, fluid accumulation, and fluid overload was created. Through a search, review, and appraisal of the literature, summative consensus statements, along with identification of knowledge gaps and recommendations for clinical practice and research were developed., Conclusions: The 26th pADQI conference proposed harmonized terminology for fluid balance and for describing a pathologic state of fluid overload for clinical practice and research. Recommendations include that the terms daily fluid balance, cumulative fluid balance, and percent cumulative fluid balance be utilized to describe the fluid status of sick children. The term fluid overload is to be preserved for describing a pathologic state of positive fluid balance associated with adverse events. Several recommendations for research were proposed including focused validation of the definition of fluid balance, fluid overload, and proposed methodologic approaches and endpoints for clinical trials., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Intravenous (i.v.) fluid therapy is critically important in pediatric kidney transplantation. Because of the high volumes given perioperatively, transplant recipients can develop significant electrolyte abnormalities depending on the types of fluids used. Current practices in pediatric transplantation aim to balance risks of hyponatremia from traditionally used hypotonic fluids, such as 0.45% sodium chloride, against hyperchloremia and acidosis associated with isotonic 0.9% sodium chloride. Using the balanced solution Plasma-Lyte 148 as an alternative might mitigate these risks., (Copyright © 2023 International Society of Nephrology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The use of peritoneal catheters for prophylactic dialysis or drainage to prevent fluid overload after neonatal cardiac surgery is common in some centres; however, the multi-centre variability and details of peritoneal catheter use are not well described., Methods: Twenty-two-centre NEonatal and Pediatric Heart Renal Outcomes Network (NEPHRON) study to describe multi-centre peritoneal catheter use after STAT category 3-5 neonatal cardiac surgery using cardiopulmonary bypass. Patient characteristics and acute kidney injury/fluid outcomes for six post-operative days are described among three cohorts: peritoneal catheter with dialysis, peritoneal catheter with passive drainage, and no peritoneal catheter., Results: Of 1490 neonates, 471 (32%) had an intraoperative peritoneal catheter placed; 177 (12%) received prophylactic dialysis and 294 (20%) received passive drainage. Sixteen (73%) centres used peritoneal catheter at some frequency, including six centres in >50% of neonates. Four centres utilised prophylactic peritoneal dialysis. Time to post-operative dialysis initiation was 3 hours [1, 5] with the duration of 56 hours [37, 90]; passive drainage cohort drained for 92 hours [64, 163]. Peritoneal catheter were more common among patients receiving pre-operative mechanical ventilation, single ventricle physiology, and higher complexity surgery. There was no association with adverse events. Serum creatinine and daily fluid balance were not clinically different on any post-operative day. Mortality was similar., Conclusions: In neonates undergoing complex cardiac surgery, peritoneal catheter use is not rare, with substantial variability among centres. Peritoneal catheters are used more commonly with higher surgical complexity. Adverse event rates, including mortality, are not different with peritoneal catheter use. Fluid overload and creatinine-based acute kidney injury rates are not different in peritoneal catheter cohorts.

Acute electrolyte and acid-base imbalance is experienced by many children following kidney transplant. This is partly because doctors give very large volumes of artificial fluids to keep the new kidney working. When severe, fluid imbalance can lead to seizures, cerebral edema and death. In this pragmatic, open-label, randomized controlled trial, we randomly assigned (1:1) pediatric kidney transplant recipients to Plasma-Lyte-148 or standard of care perioperative intravenous fluids (predominantly 0.45% sodium chloride and 0.9% sodium chloride solutions). We then compared clinically significant electrolyte and acid-base abnormalities in the first 72 hours post-transplant. The primary outcome, acute hyponatremia, was experienced by 53% of 68 participants in the Plasma-Lyte-148 group and 58% of 69 participants in the standard fluids group (odds ratio 0·77 (0·34 - 1·75)). Five of 16 secondary outcomes differed with Plasma-Lyte-148: hypernatremia was significantly more frequent (odds ratio 3·5 (1·1 - 10·8)), significantly fewer changes to fluid prescriptions were made (rate ratio 0·52 (0·40-0·67)), and significantly fewer participants experienced hyperchloremia (odds ratio 0·17 (0·07 - 0·40)), acidosis (odds ratio 0·09 (0·04 - 0·22)) and hypomagnesemia (odds ratio 0·21 (0·08 - 0·50)). No other secondary outcomes differed between groups. Serious adverse events were reported in 9% of participants randomized to Plasma-Lyte-148 and 7% of participants randomized to standard fluids. Thus, perioperative Plasma-Lyte-148 did not change the proportion of children who experienced acute hyponatremia compared to standard fluids. However fewer fluid prescription changes were made with Plasma-Lyte-148, while hyperchloremia and acidosis were less common., (Copyright © 2023 International Society of Nephrology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Competing Interests: Disclosure All authors disclosed no financial relationships. Commentary This case illustrates a patient with the extremely rare McKittrick-Wheelock syndrome. Readers can be forgiven for never having heard of this syndrome. The syndrome involves large villous adenomas that secrete mucin rich in electrolytes that can lead to prerenal kidney injury as well as dehydration from secretory diarrhea. The fact that this could all be caused by a polyp is counterintuitive but nonetheless true. The mainstay of therapy is to remove the offending adenoma, either by endoscopy or surgery, as was performed here. The lesions that cause this syndrome can be very large, as was the case in this patient. Physicians unfamiliar with the syndrome may not make the connection between the patient’s diarrhea and kidney injury and the adenoma. Still, prompt recognition of this constellation of findings can produce an excellent outcome and avoid significant adverse events for the patient. Douglas G. Adler, MD, FASGE, GIE Editor-in-Chief Amy Tyberg, MD, FASGE, FACG, Associate Editor for Focal Points

Background: The administration of intravenous fluids includes various indications, e.g., fluid replacement, nutritional therapy or as a solvent for drugs and is a common routine in the intensive care unit (ICU); however, overuse of intravenous fluids can lead to fluid overload, which can be associated with a poorer outcome in critically ill patients., Objective: The aim of this survey was to find out the current status of the use and management of intravenous fluids as well as the interprofessional cooperation involving clinical pharmacists on German ICUs., Methods: An online survey with 33 questions was developed. The answers of 62 participants from the Scientific Working Group on Intensive Care Medicine of the German Society for Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine were evaluated., Results: Fluid overload occurs "frequently" in 62.9% (39/62) and "very frequently" in 9.7% (6/62) of the ICUs of respondents. An established standard for an infusion management system is unknown to 71.0% (44/62) of participants and 45.2% of the respondents stated that they did not have a patient data management system. In addition, the participants indicated how they define fluid overload. This was defined by the presence of edema by 50.9% (28/55) and by positive fluid balance by 30.9% (17/55). According to the participants septic patients (38/60; 63.3%) and cardiological/cardiac surgical patients (26/60; 43.3%) are most susceptible to the occurrence of fluid overload. Interprofessional collaboration among intensive care physicians, critical care nurses, and clinical pharmacists to optimize fluid therapy was described as "relevant" by 38.7% (24/62) and "very relevant" by 45.2% (28/62). Participants with clinical pharmacists on the wards (24/62; 38.7%) answered this question more often as "very relevant" with 62.5% (15/24)., Conclusion: Fluid overload is a frequent and relevant problem in German intensive care units. Yet there are few established standards in this area. There is also a lack of validated diagnostic parameters and a clear definition of fluid overload. These are required to ensure appropriate and effective treatment that is tailored to the patient and adapted to the respective situation. Intravenous fluids should be considered as drugs that may exert side effects or can be overdosed with severe adverse consequences for the patients. One approach to optimize fluid therapy could be achieved by a fluid stewardship corresponding to comparable established procedures of the antibiotic stewardship. In particular, fluid stewardship will contribute to drug safety of intravenous fluids profiting from joined expertise in a setting of interprofessional collaboration. An important principle of fluid stewardship is to consider intravenous fluids in the same way as medication in terms of their importance. Furthermore, more in-depth studies are needed to investigate the effects of interprofessional fluid stewardship in a prospective and controlled manner., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Medizin Verlag GmbH, ein Teil von Springer Nature.)

Continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) is the preferred method for renal support in critically ill and hemodynamically unstable children in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) as it allows for gentle removal of fluids and solutes. The most frequent indications for CRRT include acute kidney injury (AKI) and fluid overload (FO) as well as non-renal indications such as removal of toxic metabolites in acute liver failure, inborn errors of metabolism, and intoxications and removal of inflammatory mediators in sepsis. AKI and/or FO are common in critically ill children and their presence is associated with worse outcomes. Therefore, early recognition of AKI and FO is important and timely transfer of patients who might require CRRT to a center with institutional expertise should be considered. Although CRRT has been increasingly used in the critical care setting, due to the lack of standardized recommendations, wide practice variations exist regarding the main aspects of CRRT application in critically ill children.     Conclusion: In this review, from the Critical Care Nephrology section of the European Society of Paediatric and Neonatal Intensive Care (ESPNIC), we summarize the key aspects of CRRT delivery and highlight the importance of adequate follow up among AKI survivors which might be of relevance for the general pediatric community. What is Known: • CRRT is the preferred method of renal support in critically ill and hemodynamically unstable children in the PICU as it allows for gentle removal of fluids and solutes. • Although CRRT has become an important and integral part of modern pediatric critical care, wide practice variations exist in all aspects of CRRT. What is New: • Given the lack of literature on guidance for a general pediatrician on when to refer a child for CRRT, we recommend timely transfer to a center with institutional expertise in CRRT, as both worsening AKI and FO have been associated with increased mortality. • Adequate follow-up of PICU patients with AKI and CRRT is highlighted as recent findings demonstrate that these children are at increased risk for adverse long-term outcomes., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Primary polydipsia (PP) is a rare but significant clinical entity in pediatric patients. Here, we present the case of a 16-month-old female referred to our center due to recurrent episodes of electrolyte imbalances. Initially admitted for management of a viral illness, she experienced unexplained electrolyte disturbances, prompting subsequent admissions marked by similar disruptions. Despite stabilization and discharge, her condition persisted. Pre-referral laboratory findings revealed significant electrolyte abnormalities alongside polyuria symptoms. Investigations unveiled a history of frequent heavy wet diapers and increased thirst. Further tests including a water deprivation test excluded diabetes insipidus. Following the restriction of water intake and careful monitoring, her condition markedly improved. This case emphasizes the importance of thorough evaluation in persistent electrolyte imbalances in toddlers, highlighting the role of polyuria as a contributing factor and the efficacy of targeted interventions in managing such cases., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Objective: To analyze morphological changes in wall of functioning and non-functioning small intestine in patients with preventive ileostomy and to determine histological predictors of water-electrolyte disorders., Material and Methods: We prospectively analyzed 57 patients >18 years old who underwent rectal resection with preventive ileostomy between January 2022 and November 2023. Anthropometric data included gender, age, body mass index, ECOG and ASA classes. Complications associated with large losses through ileostomy were water-electrolyte disorders, dehydration and acute renal failure with repeated hospitalization. Morphological analysis implied intraoperative full-layer biopsy of small intestine on anterior abdominal wall (ileostomy). Intraoperative biopsy of efferent and afferent loops was also carried out. Tissue samples were examined by light microscopy. We analyzed mean height of mucous membrane villi and depth of crypts, as well as their ratio. Fibrosis and swelling of submucosa were evaluated too. The results were analyzed in the SPSS Statistics 20 software., Results: Mean height of intestinal villi <465 microns ( p =0.028), ratio of their height to crypt depth <4.38 ( p =0.034) and submucosal fibrosis ( p =0.031) significantly affected malabsorption and readmission of patients. The risk of readmission was 11.5 and 5.5 times higher in univariate analysis. Multivariate analysis revealed in-hospital dehydration with resumption of infusion therapy as a predictor of readmission ( p =0.046)., Conclusion: Ileostomy is a certain stress for the patient's body. Not every patient is able for adaptation. One of the adaptation mechanisms is hypertrophy of mucous membrane villi involved in digestion. This mechanism is less pronounced in patients with repeated hospitalizations. Preoperative morphological examination of ileum mucosa may be an additional objective predictor of possible complications of preventive ileostomy.

Aims: Hospital readmissions due to recurrent fluid overload in diabetes and diabetic kidney disease can be avoided with evidence-based interventions. We aimed to identify at-risk patients who can benefit from these interventions by developing risk prediction models for readmissions for fluid overload in people living with diabetes and diabetic kidney disease., Methods: This was a single-center retrospective cohort study of 1,531 adults with diabetes and diabetic kidney disease hospitalized for fluid overload, congestive heart failure, pulmonary edema, and generalized edema between 2015 and 2017. The multivariable regression models for 30-day and 90-day readmission for fluid overload were compared with the LACE score for discrimination, calibration, sensitivity, specificity, and net reclassification index (NRI)., Results: Readmissions for fluid overload within 30 days and 90 days occurred in 8.6% and 17.2% of patients with diabetes, and 8.2% and 18.3% of patients with diabetic kidney disease, respectively. After adjusting for demographics, comorbidities, clinical parameters, and medications, a history of alcoholism (HR 3.85, 95% CI: 1.41-10.55) and prior hospitalization for fluid overload (HR 2.50, 95% CI: 1.26-4.96) were independently associated with 30-day readmission in patients with diabetic kidney disease, as well as in individuals with diabetes. Additionally, current smoking, absence of hypertension, and high-dose intravenous furosemide were also associated with 30-day readmission in individuals with diabetes. Prior hospitalization for fluid overload (HR 2.43, 95% CI: 1.50-3.94), cardiovascular disease (HR 1.44, 95% CI: 1.03-2.02), eGFR ≤45 mL/min/1.73 m2 (HR 1.39, 95% CI: 1.003-1.93) was independently associated with 90-day readmissions in individuals with diabetic kidney disease. Additionally, thiazide prescription at discharge reduced 90-day readmission in diabetic kidney disease, while the need for high-dose intravenous furosemide predicted 90-day readmission in diabetes. The clinical and clinico-psychological models for 90-day readmission in individuals with diabetes and diabetic kidney disease had better discrimination and calibration than the LACE score. The NRI for the clinico-psychosocial models to predict 30- and 90-day readmissions in diabetes was 22.4% and 28.9%, respectively. The NRI for the clinico-psychosocial models to predict 30- and 90-day readmissions in diabetic kidney disease was 5.6% and 38.9%, respectively., Conclusion: The risk models can potentially be used to identify patients at risk of readmission for fluid overload for evidence-based interventions, such as patient education or transitional care programs to reduce preventable hospitalizations., (© 2024 The Author(s). Published by S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Objectives: Postoperative patients after congenital cardiac surgery are at high risk of fluid overload (FO), which is known to be associated with poor outcomes. "Fluid creep," or nonresuscitation IV fluid in excess of maintenance requirement, is recognized as a modifiable factor associated with FO in the general PICU population, but has not been studied in congenital cardiac surgery patients. Our objective was to characterize fluid administration after congenital cardiac surgery, quantify fluid creep, and the association between fluid creep, FO, and outcome., Design: Retrospective, observational cohort study., Setting: Single-center urban mixed-medical and cardiac PICU., Patients: Patients admitted to the PICU after cardiac surgery between January 2010 and December 2020., Interventions: None., Measurements and Main Results: There were 1,459 postoperative encounters with 1,224 unique patients. Total fluid intake was greater than maintenance requirements on 3,103 of 4,661 patient days (67%), with fluid creep present on 2,624 patient days (56%). Total nonresuscitation intake was higher in patients with FO (defined as cumulative fluid balance 10% above body weight) versus those without. Fluid creep was higher among patients with FO than those without for each of the first 5 days postoperatively. Each 10 mL/kg of fluid creep in the first 24 hours postoperatively was associated with 26% greater odds of developing FO (odds ratio [OR] 1.26; 95% CI, 1.17-1.35) and 17% greater odds of mortality (OR 1.17; 95% CI, 1.05-1.30) after adjusting for risk of mortality based on surgical procedure, age, and day 1 resuscitation volume. Increasing fluid creep in the first 24 hours postoperatively was associated with increased postoperative duration of mechanical ventilation and PICU length of stay., Conclusions: Fluid creep is present on most postoperative days for pediatric congenital cardiac surgery patients, and fluid creep is associated with higher-risk procedures. Fluid creep early in the postoperative PICU stay is associated with greater odds of FO, mortality, length of mechanical ventilation, and PICU length of stay. Fluid creep may be under-recognized in this population and thus present a modifiable target for intervention., Competing Interests: Dr. Miller-Smith received funding from UptoDate and AAP Grand Rounds. Dr. Orwoll received funding from the University of California. The remaining authors have disclosed that they do not have any potential conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 by the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies.)

Refeeding syndrome (RS) is characterized by electrolyte imbalances that can occur in malnourished and abruptly refed patients. Typical features of RS are hypophosphatemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, and thiamine deficiency. It is a potentially life-threatening condition that can affect both adults and children, although there is scarce evidence in the pediatric literature. The sudden increase in food intake causes a shift in the body's metabolism and electrolyte balance, leading to symptoms such as weakness, seizures, and even heart failure. A proper management with progressive increase in nutrients is essential to prevent the onset of this condition and ensure the best possible outcomes. Moreover, an estimated incidence of up to 7.4% has been observed in pediatric intensive care unit patients receiving nutritional support, alone or as an adjunct. To prevent RS, it is important to carefully monitor feeding resumption, particularly in severely malnourished individuals. A proper strategy should start with small amounts of low-calorie fluids and gradually increasing the calorie content and amount of food over several days. Close monitoring of electrolyte levels is critical and prophylactic use of dietary supplements such as thiamine may be required to correct any imbalances that may occur. In this narrative review, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of RS in pediatric clinical practice and provide a possible management algorithm., Competing Interests: The author reports no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Wolters Kluwer on behalf of European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition and North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition.)

The purpose of perioperative fluid management in children is to maintain adequate volume status, electrolyte level, and endocrine system homeostasis during the perioperative period. Although hypotonic solutions containing glucose have traditionally been used as pediatric maintenance fluids, recent studies have shown that isotonic balanced crystalloid solutions lower the risk of hyponatremia and metabolic acidosis perioperatively. Isotonic balanced solutions have been found to exhibit safer and more physiologically appropriate characteristics for perioperative fluid maintenance and replacement. Additionally, adding 1-2.5% glucose to the maintenance fluid can help prevent children from developing hypoglycemia as well as lipid mobilization, ketosis, and hyperglycemia. The fasting time should be as short as possible without compromising safety; recent guidelines have recommended that the duration of clear fluid fasting be reduced to 1 h. The ongoing loss of fluid and blood as well as the free water retention induced by antidiuretic hormone secretion are unique characteristics of postoperative fluid management that must be considered. Reducing the infusion rate of the isotonic balanced solution may be necessary to avoid dilutional hyponatremia during the postoperative period. In summary, perioperative fluid management in pediatric patients requires careful attention because of the limited reserve capacity in this population. Isotonic balanced solutions appear to be the safest and most beneficial choice for most pediatric patients, considering their physiology and safety concerns.

Onconephrology is a rising and rapidly expanding field of medicine in which nephrology and oncology meet each other. Besides multidisciplinary meetings, oncologists and nephrologists often discuss on timing of the treatment, dosage, and side effects management. Cancer patients often encounter different electrolyte disorders. They are mostly secondary to the tumor itself or consequences of its treatment. In the last years, the great efforts to find new therapies like targeted, immune, and cell-based led us to many new side effects. Hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hypercalcemia, and hypomagnesemia are among the most common electrolyte disorders. Data have shown a worse prognosis in patients with electrolytic imbalances. Additionally, they cause a delay in chemotherapy or even an interruption. It is important to diagnose promptly these complications and treat them. In this review, we provide a special focus on hyponatremia and its treatment as the most common electrolytes disorder in cancer patients, but also on newly described cases of hypo- and hyperkalemia and metabolic acidosis., (Copyright by Società Italiana di Nefrologia SIN, Rome, Italy.)

Rationale: Bioimpedance may be a useful tool to guide fluid treatment and avoid organ dysfunction related to fluid overload. Objective: We examined the correlation between bioimpedance and organ dysfunction in patients with septic shock. Methods: Prospective observational study of adult intensive care unit patients fulfilling the sepsis-3 criteria. Bioimpedance was measured using a body composition monitor (BCM) and BioScan Touch i8 (MBS). We measured impedance at inclusion and after 24 h and reported the impedance, change in impedance, bioimpedance-derived fluid balance, and changes in bioimpedance-derived fluid balance. Organ markers on respiratory, circulatory, and kidney function and overall disease severity were ascertained on days 1-7. The effect of bioimpedance on the change in organ function was assessed by mixed effects linear models. We considered P  < .01 as significant. Measurements and Main Results: Forty-nine patients were included. None of the single baseline measurements or derived fluid balances were associated with the course of organ dysfunction. Changes in impedance were associated with the course of overall disease severity ( P  < .001; with MBS), and with changes in noradrenaline dose ( P  < .001; with MBS) and fluid balance ( P  < .001; with BCM). The changes in bioimpedance-derived fluid balance were associated with changes in noradrenaline dose ( P  < .001; with BCM), cumulative fluid balances ( P  < .001; with MBS), and lactate concentrations ( P  < .001; with BCM). Conclusions: Changes in bioimpedance were correlated with the duration of overall organ failure, circulatory failure, and fluid status. Single measurements of bioimpedance were not associated with any changes in organ dysfunction.

Introduction: Although it has been established that electrolyte abnormalities are a consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI), the degree to which electrolyte imbalances impact patient outcomes has not been fully established. We aim to determine the impact of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium abnormalities on outcomes in patients with TBI., Methods: Four databases were searched for studies related to the impact of electrolyte abnormalities on outcomes for TBI patients. Outcomes of interest were rates of mortality, Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS), and intensive care unit length of stay (ICU-LOS). The search included studies published up to July 21, 2022. Articles were then screened and included if they met inclusion and exclusion criteria., Results: In total, fourteen studies met inclusion and exclusion criteria for analysis in this systematic review. In patients with TBI, an increased mortality rate was associated with hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and hypocalcemia in the majority of studies. Both hyponatremia and hypomagnesemia were associated with worse GOS at 6 months. Whereas, both hyponatremia and hypernatremia were associated with increased ICU-LOS. There was no evidence to suggest other electrolyte imbalances were associated with either GOS or ICU-LOS., Conclusions: Hyponatremia and hypomagnesemia were associated with worse GOS. Hypernatremia was associated with increased mortality and ICU-LOS. Hypokalemia and hypocalcemia were associated with increased mortality. Given these findings, future practice guidelines should consider the effects of electrolytes' abnormalities on outcomes in TBI patients prior to establishing management strategies., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Hyponatremia is one of the most common electrolyte disorders in emergency departments and hospitalized patients. Serum sodium concentration is controlled by osmoregulation and volume regulation. Both pathways are regulated via the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Syndrome of inappropriate release of ADH (SIADH) may be caused by neoplasms or pneumonia but may also be triggered by drug use or drug abuse. Excessive fluid intake may also result in a decrease in serum sodium concentration. Rapid alteration in serum sodium concentration leads to cell swelling or cell shrinkage, which primarily causes neurological symptoms. The dynamics of development of hyponatremia and its duration are crucial. In addition to blood testing, a clinical examination and urine analysis are essential in the differential diagnosis of hyponatremia., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Electrolyte and acid-base disorders are frequently encountered in patients with malignancy, either due to cancer itself or as a complication of its therapy. However, spurious electrolyte disorders can complicate the interpretation and management of these patients. Several electrolytes can be artifactually increased or decreased such that the serum electrolyte values do not correspond to their actual systemic levels, potentially resulting in extensive diagnostic investigations and therapeutic interventions. Examples of spurious derangements include pseudohyponatremia, pseudohypokalemia, pseudohyperkalemia, pseudohypophosphatemia, pseudohyperphosphatemia, and artifactual acid-base abnormalities. Correctly interpreting these artifactual laboratory abnormalities is imperative for avoiding unnecessary and potentially harmful interventions in cancer patients. The factors influencing these spurious results also must be recognized, along with the steps to minimize them. We present a narrative review of commonly reported pseudo electrolyte disorders and describe strategies to exclude erroneous interpretations of these laboratory values and avoid pitfalls. Awareness and recognition of spurious electrolyte and acid-base disorders can prevent unnecessary and harmful treatments., (Copyright © 2023 National Kidney Foundation, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Electrolyte disorders are very common in the pediatric population. Derangements in serum sodium and potassium concentrations are among the most frequently seen given the risk factors and comorbidities unique to children. Pediatricians, in both outpatient and inpatient settings, should be comfortable with the evaluation and initial treatment of disturbances in these electrolyte concentrations. However, to evaluate and treat a child with abnormal serum concentrations of sodium or potassium, it is critical to understand the regulatory physiology that governs osmotic homeostasis and potassium regulation in the body. Comprehension of these basic physiologic processes will allow the provider to uncover the underlying pathology of these electrolyte disturbances and devise an appropriate and safe treatment plan., (© American Academy of Pediatrics, 2023. All rights reserved.)

Objective: The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of fluid overload related to mechanical ventilation, renal replacement therapy, and evolution to discharge or death in critically ill children., Methods: A retrospective study in a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit for two years. Patients who required invasive ventilatory support and vasopressor and/or inotropic medications were considered critically ill., Results: 70 patients were included. The mean age was 6.8 ± 6 years. There was a tolerable increase in fluid overload during hospitalization, with a median of 2.45% on the first day, 5.10% on the third day, and 8.39% on the tenth day. The median fluid overload on the third day among those patients in pressure support ventilation mode was 4.80% while the median of those who remained on controlled ventilation was 8.45% (p = 0.039). Statistical significance was observed in the correlations between fluid overload measurements on the first, third, and tenth days of hospitalization and the beginning of renal replacement therapy (p = 0.049) and between renal replacement therapy and death (p = 0.01). The median fluid overload was 7.50% in patients who died versus 4.90% in those who did not die on the third day of hospitalization (p = 0.064). There was no statistically significant association between death and the variables sex or age., Conclusions: The fluid overload on the third day of hospitalization proved to be a determinant for the clinical outcomes of weaning from mechanical ventilation, initiation of renal replacement therapy, discharge from the intensive care unit, or death among these children., Competing Interests: Conflicts of interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier Editora Ltda.)

Background: Cross-sectional studies showed that fluid overload (FO) measured by bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) predicted adverse outcomes in patients on peritoneal dialysis (PD). We aimed to describe the longitudinal change in volume status in Chinese PD patients and determine its relation with clinical outcomes., Methods: We performed a single-centre, retrospective analysis of all PD patients who underwent repeated BIS from 2010 to 2015. FO was defined by relative hydration index (RHI; volume of overhydration adjusted by extracellular water >7%). Variability of volume status (VVS) was denoted by the standard deviation of all RHI. The association of time-averaged RHI and VVS on patient and technique survival was explored by a competing risk model., Results: A total of 269 patients were followed for a median of 47.1 months. Mean time-averaged RHI was 17.6 ± 10.2%. Multivariable mixed linear regression revealed that RHI was significantly associated with diabetes, time-varying systolic blood pressure, and inversely with time-varying albumin level, lean tissue index and fat tissue index ( p <0.0001 for all). Time-averaged RHI independently predicted patient survival (subdistribution hazard ratio (SHR) 1.05, 95% CI 1.03-1.07, p <0.0001) and technique survival (SHR 1.04, 95% CI 1.02-1.06, p <0.0001), whereas VVS did not. The mortality risk for patients with persistent FO was consistently higher than the corresponding risk estimated from baseline FO of the same extent., Conclusions: Persistent FO was a strong predictor of patient and technique failure. Repeated bioimpedance measurements to monitor volume status may provide additional prognostic information in PD patients.

Background: Fluid overload associates with poor outcomes after neonatal cardiac surgery, but consensus does not exist for the most clinically relevant method of measuring fluid balance (FB). While weight change-based FB (FB-W) is standard in neonatal intensive care units, weighing infants after cardiac surgery may be challenging. We aimed to identify characteristics associated with obtaining weights and to understand how intake/output-based FB (FB-IO) and FB-W compare in the early postoperative period in this population., Methods: Observational retrospective study of 2235 neonates undergoing cardiac surgery from 22 hospitals comprising the NEonatal and Pediatric Heart and Renal Outcomes Network (NEPHRON) database., Results: Forty-five percent (n = 998) of patients were weighed on postoperative day (POD) 2, varying from 2 to 98% among centers. Odds of being weighed were lower for STAT categories 4 and 5 (OR 0.72; 95% CI 0.53-0.98), cardiopulmonary bypass (0.59; 0.42-0.83), delayed sternal closure (0.27; 0.19-0.38), prophylactic peritoneal dialysis use (0.58; 0.34-0.99), and mechanical ventilation on POD 2 (0.23; 0.16-0.33). Correlation between FB-IO and FB-W was weak for every POD 1-6 and within the entire cohort (correlation coefficient 0.15; 95% CI 0.12-0.17). FB-W measured higher than paired FB-IO (mean bias 12.5%; 95% CI 11.6-13.4%) with wide 95% limits of agreement (- 15.4-40.4%)., Conclusions: Weighing neonates early after cardiac surgery is uncommon, with significant practice variation among centers. Patients with increased severity of illness are less likely to be weighed. FB-W and FB-IO have weak correlation, and further study is needed to determine which cumulative FB metric most associates with adverse outcomes. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to International Pediatric Nephrology Association.)

Background: Acute kidney injury (AKI) and fluid overload (FO) are associated with poor outcomes in children receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Our objective is to evaluate the impact of AKI and FO on pediatric patients receiving ECMO for cardiac pathology., Methods: We performed a secondary analysis of the six-center Kidney Interventions During Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (KIDMO) database, including only children who underwent ECMO for cardiac pathology. AKI was defined using Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) creatinine criteria. FO was defined as < 10% (FO-) vs. ≥ 10% (FO +) and was evaluated at ECMO initiation, peak during ECMO, and ECMO discontinuation. Primary outcomes were mortality and length of stay (LOS)., Results: Data from 191 patients were included. Non-survivors (56%) were more likely to be FO + than survivors at peak ECMO fluid status and ECMO discontinuation. There was a significant interaction between AKI and FO. In the presence of AKI, the adjusted odds of mortality for FO + was 4.79 times greater than FO- (95% CI: 1.52-15.12, p = 0.01). In the presence of FO + , the adjusted odds of mortality for AKI + was 2.7 times higher than AKI- [95%CI: 1.10-6.60; p = 0.03]. Peak FO + was associated with a 55% adjusted relative increase in LOS [95%CI: 1.07-2.26, p = 0.02]., Conclusions: The association of peak FO + with mortality is present only in the presence of AKI + . Similarly, AKI + is associated with mortality only in the presence of peak FO + . FO + was associated with LOS. Studies targeting fluid management have the potential to improve LOS and mortality outcomes. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to International Pediatric Nephrology Association.)

Objectives: A new device is available for neonates needing extracorporeal renal replacement therapy. We reviewed the use of this device (in continuous venovenous hemofiltration [CVVH] mode) in term or preterm neonates affected by multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) with fluid overload., Design: Case series., Setting: Academic specialized referral neonatal ICU (NICU) with expertise on advanced life support and monitoring., Patients: Neonates with MODS and fluid overload despite conventional treatments and receiving at least one CVVH session., Intervention: CVVH with the Cardio-Renal Pediatric Dialysis Emergency Machine., Measurements and Main Results: Ten (three preterm) neonates were treated using 18 consecutive CVVH sessions. All patients were in life-threatening conditions and successfully completed the CVVH treatments, which almost always lasted 24 hr/session, without major side effects. Three neonates survived and were successfully discharged from hospital with normal follow-up. CVVH reduced fluid overload (before versus after represented as a weight percentage: 23.5% [12-34%] vs 14.6% [8.2-24.1%]; p = 0.006) and lactate (before versus after: 4.6 [2.9-12.1] vs 2.9 mmol/L [2.3-5.5 mmol/L]; p = 0.001). CVVH also improved the Pa o2 to Fio2 (before vs after: 188 mm Hg [118-253 mm Hg] vs 240 mm Hg [161-309 mm Hg]; p = 0.003) and oxygenation index (before vs after: 5.9 [3.8-14.6] vs 4 [2.9-11]; p = 0.002). The average cost of CVVH in these patients was minor (≈3%) in comparison with the median total cost of NICU care per patient., Conclusions: We have provided CVVH to critically ill term and preterm neonates with MODS. CVVH improved fluid overload and oxygenation. The cost of CVVH was minimal compared with the overall cost of neonatal intensive care., Competing Interests: Dr. De Luca has served as consultant and lecturer for MEDTRONIC inc. The remaining authors have disclosed that they do not have any potential conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 by the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies.)

Objective: To explore the correlation between fluid load index and cardiovascular events in hemodialysis patients based on repeated body composition analyses. Methods: A prospective cohort study was conducted to collect the clinical data of patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis (MHD) in the Department of Nephrology, Hangzhou Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine from July to September 2020. The pre-dialysis fluid overload (FO) index-overhydration (OH) was measured by bioelectrical impedance method, and the follow-up monitoring was conducted every 6 months. According to the baseline OH value, patients were divided into non-FO group (OH≤2.5 L) and FO group (OH>2.5 L). Moreover, according to the repeated measurements, the patients were divided into continuous non-FO group, continuous FO group and intermittent FO group. All patients were followed up until October 1, 2022, and the outcomes were recorded. The end point of follow-up was cardiovascular events. The cumulative incidence of cardiovascular events was calculated by the Kaplan-Meier method, and the risk factors of cardiovascular events were analyzed by Cox proportional hazards regression model. Results: A total of 289 patients were included, including 88 patients (30.4%) with FO and 201 patients (69.6%) with non-FO. There were 168 males (58.1%) and 121 (41.9%) females, with an average age of (58±13) years and an average follow-up time of (22.0±6.5) months. Kaplan-Meier analysis showed that the incidence of cardiovascular events in the baseline FO group was higher than that in the non-FO group (log-rank χ 2 = 14.44, P <0.001). The incidence of cardiovascular events in both the continuous FO group and the intermittent FO group was higher than that in the continuous non-FO group (log-rank χ 2 = 41.47, P <0.001; log-rank χ 2 = 18.36, P <0.001). After adjustment for gender, age, comorbidities, and biochemical indicators, the incidence of cardiovascular events in the baseline FO group was 1.850 times of the non-FO group (95% CI : 1.046-3.271, P =0.034). The incidence of cardiovascular events in the continuous FO group was 4.679 times of the continuous non-FO group (95% CI : 2.189-10.002, P <0.001). The incidence of cardiovascular events in the intermittent FO group was 3.410 times of the continuous non-FO group (95% CI : 1.696-6.857, P= 0.001). Conclusions: OH value measured by bioelectrical impedance can be used as an important reference index for clinical monitoring of cardiovascular events in MHD patients. Continuous chronic and intermittent exposures to FO are risk factors for cardiovascular events in hemodialysis patients.

Excessive accumulation of fluid may result in interstitial edema and multiorgan dysfunction. Over the past few decades, the detrimental impact of fluid overload has been further defined in adult and pediatric populations. Growing evidence highlights the importance of monitoring, preventing, managing, and treating fluid overload appropriately. Translating this knowledge to neonates is difficult as they have different disease pathophysiologies, and because neonatal physiology changes rapidly postnatally in many of the organ systems (i.e., skin, kidneys, and cardiovascular, pulmonary, and gastrointestinal). Thus, evaluations of the optimal targets for fluid balance need to consider the disease state as well as the gestational and postmenstrual age of the infant. Integration of what is known about neonatal fluid overload with individual alterations in physiology is imperative in clinical management. This comprehensive review will address what is known about the epidemiology and pathophysiology of neonatal fluid overload and highlight the known knowledge gaps. Finally, we provide clinical recommendations for monitoring, prevention, and treatment of fluid overload., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to International Pediatric Nephrology Association.)

Background: Functional impairment, malnutrition and fluid overload are prevalent in patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis (MHD). The extracellular water/body cell mass ratio (ECW/BCM) is a new indicator reflecting fluid overload and malnutrition. A previous study has suggested that it performs better than other indices in assessing fluid status. This study investigates the relationship between pre-dialysis whole-body ECW/BCM and physical function in MHD patients., Methods: We conducted a multicenter, cross-sectional study in Guizhou Province in Southwest China. The Karnofsky Performance Status (KPS) was used to evaluate patients' functional status. Patients with KPS scores of ≤ 80 were considered to have a functional impairment. The body composition was measured using the body composition monitor (BCM), and the value of the ECW/BCM ratio was calculated. The subjects were classified into three groups according to ECW/BCM tertiles. Multiple logistic regression models and interactive analyses were conducted., Results: The final analysis included 2818 subjects. Multivariate logistic regression analyses showed that compared with the lowest tertile (tertile 1), the adjusted odds ratio of functional impairment were 1.95 (95% CI: 1.21-3.13, p  < 0.001) and 2.10 (95% CI: 1.31-3.37, p  < 0.001) in the second and the third tertiles of ECW/BCM, respectively after adjusting for age, sex, current smoking status, history of stroke, heart failure, diabetes, and myocardial infarction. Subgroup analysis showed that the association existed stably across all subgroups stratified by age, gender, cognitive impairment (CI), history of stroke, heart failure, and diabetes (all p values for interaction >0.05)., Conclusions: Elevated ECW/BCM is independently linked to an increased risk of functional impairment in patients with MHD.

The primary objective of hemodialysis (HD) is lowering concentrations of organic uremic toxins that accumulate in blood in end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) and redress imbalances of inorganic compounds in particular sodium and water. Removal by ultrafiltration of excess fluid that has accumulated during the dialysis-free interval is a vital aspect of each HD session. Most HD patients are volume overloaded, with ∼25% of patients having severe (&gt;2.5 L) fluid overload (FO). The potentially serious complications of FO contribute to the high cardiovascular morbidity and mortality observed in the HD population. Weekly cycles imposed by the schedule of HD treatments create a deleterious and unphysiological "tide phenomenon" marked by sodium-volume overload (loading) and depletion (unloading). Fluid overload-related hospitalizations are frequent and costly, with average cost estimates of $ 6,372 per episode, amounting to some $ 266 million total costs over a 2-year period in a US dialysis population. Various strategies (e.g., dry weight management or use of fluids with different sodium concentrations) have been attempted to rectify FO in HD patients but have met with limited success largely due to imprecise and cumbersome, or costly, approaches. In recent years, conductivity-based technologies have been refined to actively restore sodium and fluid imbalance and maintain the predialysis plasma sodium set point (plasma tonicity) of each patient. By automatically controlling the dialysate-plasma sodium gradient based on the specific patient needs throughout a session, an individualized sodium dialysate prescription can be delivered. Maintaining precise sodium mass balance helps better control of blood pressure, reduces FO, and thus tends to prevent hospitalization for congestive heart failure. We present the case for personalized salt and fluid management via a machine-integrated sodium management tool. Results from proof-of-principle clinical trials indicate that the tool enables individualized sodium-fluid volume control during each HD session. Its application in routine clinical practice has the potential to mitigate the substantial economic burden of hospitalizations attributed to volume overload complications in HD. Additionally, such a tool would contribute toward reduced symptomology and dialysis-induced multiorgan damage in HD patients and to improving their treatment perception and quality of life which matters most to patients., (© 2023 S. Karger AG, Basel.)