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Little information is known on the rate of repeat gonorrhea infection among U.S. military personnel. We analyzed all gonorrhea cases reported to the Defense Medical Surveillance System during 2006–2012 to determine the rate of repeat infection. During the seven-year study period, 17,602 active duty U.S. Army personnel with a first incident gonorrhea infection were reported. Among the 4987 women with a first gonorrhea infection, 14.4% had at least one repeat infection. Among the 12,615 men with a first gonorrhea infection, 13.7% had at least one repeat infection. Overall, the rate of repeat gonorrhea infection was 44.5 and 48.9 per 1000 person-years for women and men, respectively. Service members aged 17–19 years (hazard ratio [HR] for women = 1.51; HR for men = 1.71), African-American personnel (HR for women = 1.26; HR for men = 2.17), junior enlisted personnel (HR for women = 2.64; HR for men = 1.37), and those with one year or less of service (HR for women = 1.23; HR for men = 1.37) were at higher risk of repeat infection. The findings from this study highlight the need to develop targeted prevention initiatives including education, counseling, and retesting to prevent gonorrhea reinfections among U.S. Army personnel.

Introduction Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common vaginal condition in women of reproductive age, which has been associated with Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae among commercial sex workers and women attending sexually transmitted infection clinics. Pathogen-specific associations between BV and other sexually transmitted infections among U.S. military women have not been investigated. Methods A population-based, nested case-control study was conducted of all incident chlamydia and gonorrhea cases reported to the Defense Medical Surveillance System during 2006−2012. Using a density sampling approach, for each chlamydia or gonorrhea case, 10 age-matched (±1 year) controls were randomly selected from those women who were never diagnosed with these infections. Incidence rate ratios were estimated using conditional logistic regression. Statistical analysis was carried out in December 2015. Results A total of 37,149 chlamydia cases and 4,987 gonorrhea cases were identified during the study period. Antecedent BV was associated with an increased risk of subsequent chlamydia (adjusted incidence rate ratio=1.51; 95% CI=1.47, 1.55) and gonorrhea (adjusted incidence rate ratio=2.42; 95% CI=2.27, 2.57) infections. For every one additional episode of BV, the risk of acquiring chlamydia and gonorrhea infections increased by 13% and 26%, respectively. A monotonic dose−response relationship was also noted between antecedent BV and subsequent chlamydia and gonorrhea infection. In addition, an effect modification on the additive scale was found between BV and African-American race for gonorrhea, but not for chlamydia. Conclusions Among U.S. Army women, antecedent BV is associated with an increased risk of subsequent chlamydia and gonorrhea infection.

The U.S. Army initiated an investigation in response to observations of a possible increase in HIV incidence among soldiers deployed to combat. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected U.S. Army soldiers are not eligible to deploy. Combat presents a health hazard to HIV-infected soldiers and they pose a threat to the safety of the battlefield blood supply and their contacts. All soldiers are routinely screened for HIV every 2 years and those who deploy are also screened both prior to and after deployment. Seroconversion rates were estimated for all soldiers who deployed to Afghanistan or Iraq in the period 2001-2007 and all active duty soldiers who did not. Seroconverters with an estimated date of infection, based on calculation of the midpoint between the last seronegative and first seropositive test date, that was either before or during deployment were eligible for inclusion. Confidential interviews and medical record reviews were conducted to determine the most likely time, geographic location, and mode of infection. Reposed predeployment samples were tested for HIV ribonucleic acid. The HIV seroconversion rate among all soldiers who deployed was less than the rate among those who did not deploy: 1.04 and 1.42 per 10,000 person-years, respectively. Among 48 cases, most were determined to have been infected in the United States or Germany and prior to deployment (n=20, 42%) or during rest and relaxation leave (n=13, 27%). Seven seronegative acute infections were identified in the predeployment period. Subtype was determined for 40 individuals; all were subtype B infections. All were acquired through sexual contact. These findings can inform development of preventive interventions and refinement of existing screening policy to further reduce HIV-infected deployed soldier person time.

BACKGROUND: Current US military clinical practice guidelines permit emergency transfusions of non–Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-compliant freshly collected blood products in theaters of war. This investigation aimed to characterize the risks of transfusion-transmitted infections (TTIs) associated with battlefield transfusions of non–FDA-compliant blood products. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: US Service members who received emergency transfusion products in Iraq and Afghanistan (March 1, 2002-September 30, 2007) were tested for hepatitis C virus (HCV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections using reposed pre- and posttransfusion sera. Selected regions of viral genomes from epidemiologically linked infected recipients and their donors were sequenced and compared. RESULTS: Of 761 US Service members who received emergency transfusion products, 475 were tested for HCV, 472 for HIV, and 469 for HBV. One transfusion-transmitted HCV infection (incidence rate of 2.1/1000 persons) was identified. The pretransfusion numbers (prevalence per 1000 persons) were HCV—four (8/1000), HIV—zero (0/1000), chronic HBV—two (4 /1000), and naturally immune (antibody to HBV core antigen)—nine (19/1000). CONCLUSION: One HCV TTI was determined to be associated with emergency blood product use. The pretransfusion HCV and HBV prevalence in transfusion recipients, themselves members of the potential donor population, indicates better characterization of the deployed force's actual donor population, and further investigations of the TTI prevalence in these donors are needed. These data will inform countermeasure development and clinical decision making.

Since 1985, the U.S. Department of Defense has periodically screened all military personnel for HIV allowing for the monitoring of the infection in this dynamic cohort population. A nested case-control study was performed to study sociodemographics, overseas assignment, and molecular analysis of HIV. Cases were newly identified HIV infections among U.S. Army and Air Force military personnel from 2000 to 2004. Controls were frequency matched to cases by gender and date of case first positive HIV screening test. Genotyping analysis was performed using high-throughput screening assays and partial genome sequencing. HIV was significantly associated with black race [odds ratio (OR) = 6.65], single marital status (OR = 4.45), and age (OR per year = 1.07). Ninety-seven percent were subtype B and 3% were non-B subtypes (A3, CRF01_AE, A/C recombinant, G, CRF02_AG). Among cases, overseas assignment in the period at risk prior to their first HIV-positive test was associated with non-B HIV subtype infection (OR = 8.44). Black and single military personnel remain disproportionately affected by HIV infection. Most non-B HIV subtypes were associated with overseas assignment. Given the increased frequency and length of assignments, and the expanding HIV genetic diversity observed in this population, there is a need for active HIV genotyping surveillance and a need to reinforce primary HIV prevention efforts.

In preparation for HIV-1 vaccine trials in Kenya, 2801 study volunteers, from a tea plantation in Kericho, were recruited as part of a prospective vaccine cohort development study. Cryopreserved plasma was available from 401 HIV-positive volunteers, and was the source of viral RNA for genotyping by the multiregion hybridization assay (MHA). Logistic regression was performed to determine association of risk factors and HIV-1 recombinant and dual infections. At baseline, HIV-1 subtype A was the dominant circulating pure subtype (56%), followed by subtype D (10%) and C (5%). Recombinant HIV-1 strains accounted for almost one-third of all infections (29%), with 7% infected with a dual strain of the HIV-1 variants described. A higher number of HIV-1 recombinant and dual infections was observed among volunteers who were 18-24 and 25-29 years of age, affiliated with the Luo tribe, had been married two or more times, reported not being circumcised, and had STI symptoms in the past 6 months. Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) significantly associated with HIV-1 recombinant and dual infection were age difference from current spouse (5-9 years; AOR = 2.5, 95% CI = 1.2-5.3 andor = 10 years; AOR = 3.1, 95% CI = 1.5-6.4) and reported STI symptoms in the past 6 months (AOR = 4.8, 95% CI = 2.0-11.6), respectively. In conclusion, our results suggest that there is considerable heterogeneity with respect to HIV-1 subtype diversity in this population that should be considered in the planning for future vaccine trials in the region.

Objective To study socio-demographics, sexual practices, drug use behaviors, and prevalences of HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B and C, HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 in immigrant (foreigner) and non-immigrant (local/native) female sex workers (FSW). Design This was a cross-sectional study in immigrant and non-immigrant FSW living in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Participants were interviewed using a standardized questionnaire. Results A total of 625 FSW were enrolled, of whom 169 (27%) were immigrant FSW from Paraguay, the Dominican Republic, Brazil, Peru, and Uruguay. The prevalence of syphilis and hepatitis C was significantly higher among Argentinean FSW than among immigrant FSW. However, hepatitis B prevalence was higher among immigrant FSW. Adjusted risk factor analysis comparing immigrant FSW with Argentinean FSW indicated that marital status (single), occupation (none), fee per sex act (≤US$7), workplace (bar and cabaret), and anal sex with clients were significantly associated with immigrant FSW status. Conclusions Effective HIV/STI prevention and medical care programs need to be tailored to the specific needs of both FSW groups in Argentina. Fil: Bautista, Christian T.. Walter Reed Army Institute of Research; Estados Unidos. US Naval Medical Research Center Detachment; Estados Unidos Fil: Pando, María de los Ángeles. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Medicina. Departamento de Microbiología. Centro Nacional de Referencia para el Sida; Argentina. University of Maryland; Estados Unidos. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Houssay; Argentina Fil: Reynaga, Elena. Asociación de Mujeres Meretrices de Argentina; Argentina Fil: Marone, Ruben. NEXO; Argentina Fil: Sateren, Warren B.. Walter Reed Army Institute of Research; Estados Unidos Fil: Montano, Silvia M.. US Naval Medical Research Center Detachment; Estados Unidos Fil: Sanchez, Jose L.. US Naval Medical Research Center Detachment; Estados Unidos. Walter Reed Army Institute of Research; Estados Unidos Fil: Ávila, María Mercedes. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Medicina. Departamento de Microbiología. Centro Nacional de Referencia para el Sida; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Houssay; Argentina

A cross-sectional study was performed to determine the prevalence and risk factors for HIV-1 infection among agricultural plantation residents in Kericho, Kenya. Volunteers were recruited, interviewed, and phlebotomized for HIV-1 serologic testing. Sex-specific adjusted odds ratios were estimated using logistic regression. The overall HIV-1 prevalence was 9.9% (81/820), with prevalence in women more than twice that in men (17.4% vs 8.0%, P = 0.001). Among men, elevated HIV-1 prevalence was seen with increasing age, peaking in those older than 30 years (10.3%), marriage (10.4%), Luo tribe affiliation (23.5%), employment (8.9%), travel (11.0%), and being uncircumcised (29.2%). Among women, elevated HIV-1 prevalence was seen in those with no formal education (36.8%) and those who received goods in exchange for sex (36.0%). More than 97% of volunteers expressed a willingness to participate in future HIV-1 studies requiring semiannual visits. HIV prevention efforts have been implemented, along with further research to characterize this population for future cohort feasibility studies and HIV-1 vaccine efficacy trials.

Data from 5,699,590 white and African-American civilian applicants who applied for service in the US military between 1985 and 2003 were used to analyze HIV prevalence trends. The overall HIV prevalence was 0.72/1000, which declined from 2.63/1000 in 1985 to 0.29/1000 in 1995, after which it remained stable until 2003 (0.30/1000). Larger and more significant declines in annual HIV prevalences were observed among the 4.5 million white applicants (-15.7% per year) compared with the 1.2 million African-American applicants (-10.0% per year). The HIV prevalence decline was also greater among male applicants (-12.4% per year) than female applicants (-7.1% per year). In the most recent 4 years study period, HIV prevalences increased among white applicants 25 to 29 years of age among African-American applicants 30 years of age or older. These data suggest that despite the overall consistent decreases in HIV prevalence from the 1980s to the late 1990s, an increase in HIV prevalence has taken place older African-American and white subgroups in more recent years.

To study the molecular epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strains in Medellin, Colombia, 115 HIV-1-positive individuals who were recruited from an HIV outpatient hospital (Universitario San Vicente de Paul) during the period from July 2001 to January 2002 were genotyped. All samples were analyzed by envelope heteroduplex mobility assay and found to be subtype B. Twenty-four samples were randomly selected for sequencing of the protease and the reverse transcriptase regions; all isolates were found to be subtype B. Phylogenetic analysis of seven nearly full-length genomes showed that all samples were subtype B. This study shows that the HIV epidemic in Colombia continues to be dominated by the subtype B virus. The predominance of subtype B genotypes of HIV-1 strains in Medellin resembles what is seen in the nearby countries of Peru, Ecuador, and Venezuela.

We report the development and evaluation of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 testing algorithm consisting of three rapid antibody detection tests. Stored serum samples from Uganda were utilized with a final algorithm sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 98.9% (95% confidence interval, 98.6% to 99.3%).

Objectives: This study examined demographic and geographic correlates of HIV-1 prevalence among civilian applicants for US military service. Methods: HIV-1 test results and demographic and geographic data were available for 5.3 million applicants. Results: Between October 1985 and December 2000, a total of 5,340,694 individuals applied to join one of the armed service branches of the US military. Overall, HIV-1 prevalence was 0.80 per 1000 applicants (95% CI: 0.78-0.82), with 4276 applicants testing positive for HIV-1 infection. Prevalence declined over the 16-year period from a high of 2.89 per 1000 applicants in 1985 to 0.36 per 1000 applicants in 2000. The majority of applicants (82.7%) were male, and the majority of HIV-1 cases (89.4%) occurred in men. HIV-1 prevalence was higher among African Americans (2.47/1000) and Hispanics (0.90/1000) than among white applicants (0.36/1000). HIV-1 prevalence was lowest in the West North Central region of the United States (0.33/1000) and highest in the Middle Atlantic region (1.61/1000) and Puerto Rico (3.56/1000). Conclusions: Civilian applicants for US military service comprise a unique cohort for following trends in the evolving HIV-1 epidemic.

PURPOSE: We chose to examine the impact of socioeconomic factors on accrual to National Cancer Institute (NCI)–sponsored cancer treatment trials. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We estimated the geographic and demographic cancer burden in the United States and then identified 24,332 patients accrued to NCI-sponsored cancer treatment trials during a 12-month period. Next, we examined accrual by age, sex, geographic residence, health insurance status, health maintenance organization market penetration, several proxy measures of socioeconomic status, the availability of an oncologist, and the presence of a hospital with an approved multidisciplinary cancer program. RESULTS: Pediatric patients were accrued to clinical trials at high levels, whereas after adolescence, only a small percentage of cancer patients were enrolled onto clinical trials. There were few differences by sex. Black males as well as Asian-American and Hispanic adults were accrued to clinical trials at lower rates than white cancer patients of the same age. Overall, the highest observed accrual was in suburban counties. Compared with the United States population, patients enrolled onto clinical trials were significantly less likely to be uninsured and more like to have Medicare health insurance. Geographic areas with higher socioeconomic levels had higher levels of clinical trial accruals. The number of oncologists and the presence of approved cancer programs both were significantly associated with increased accrual to clinical trials. CONCLUSION: We must work to increase the number of adults who enroll onto trials, especially among the elderly. Ongoing partnership with professional societies may be an effective approach to strengthen accrual to clinical trials.

Background and Methods: Active duty US Army and Air Force military personnel undergo mandatory biennial HIV antibody screening. We compared pre- and post-HIV seroconversion health status by conducting a case-control study, which evaluated all medical encounters and sociodemographic factors among incident HIV seroconverters and HIV-negative controls from June 2000 through February 2004. Results: A total of 274 HIV seroconverters and 6205 HIV-negative personnel were included. In multivariate analysis restricted to male personnel (cases = 261, controls = 5801), single marital status (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 14.37), clinical indicators or symptoms within four years of HIV diagnosis (AOR = 6.22), black race (AOR = 5.88), nonindicator clinical syndromes within 2 years of HIV diagnosis (AOR = 3.31), any mental disorder within 4 years of HIV diagnosis (AOR = 3.04), increasing service-connected time (AOR = 1.69), and older age (AOR = 1.12) were associated with HIV diagnosis among males. A prior history of a sexually transmitted infection (STI) was associated with post-HIV seroconversion STI (ORM-H = 4.10). Similarly, a prior history of mental disorder was associated with post-HIV seroconversion mental disorder (ORM-H = 4.98). Forty-seven (18%) male cases were hospitalized at least once after HIV diagnosis; infectious diseases, and mental disorders made up 53% of initial admissions. Conclusions: HIV seroconversion was associated with increased health care-seeking behavior, STIs, and mental disorders, some of which may be amenable to screening. The higher STI rate after HIV diagnosis may partially be a consequence of monitoring, but secondary transmission of STI and possibly HIV require further definition and subsequent tailored preventive interventions.

Current US military clinical practice guidelines permit emergency transfusions of non-Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-compliant freshly collected blood products in theaters of war. This investigation aimed to characterize the risks of transfusion-transmitted infections (TTIs) associated with battlefield transfusions of non-FDA-compliant blood products.US Service members who received emergency transfusion products in Iraq and Afghanistan (March 1, 2002-September 30, 2007) were tested for hepatitis C virus (HCV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections using reposed pre- and posttransfusion sera. Selected regions of viral genomes from epidemiologically linked infected recipients and their donors were sequenced and compared.Of 761 US Service members who received emergency transfusion products, 475 were tested for HCV, 472 for HIV, and 469 for HBV. One transfusion-transmitted HCV infection (incidence rate of 2.1/1000 persons) was identified. The pretransfusion numbers (prevalence per 1000 persons) were HCV-four (8/1000), HIV-zero (0/1000), chronic HBV-two (4 /1000), and naturally immune (antibody to HBV core antigen)-nine (19/1000).One HCV TTI was determined to be associated with emergency blood product use. The pretransfusion HCV and HBV prevalence in transfusion recipients, themselves members of the potential donor population, indicates better characterization of the deployed force's actual donor population, and further investigations of the TTI prevalence in these donors are needed. These data will inform countermeasure development and clinical decision making.

SUMMARYHuman immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) epidemiology among residents of a rural agricultural plantation in Kericho, Kenya was studied. HIV-1 prevalence was 14·3%, and was higher among women (19·1%) than men (11·3%). Risk factors associated with HIV-1 for men were age (⩾25 years), marital history (one or more marriages), age difference from current spouse (⩾5 years), Luo ethnicity, sexually transmitted infection (STI) symptoms in the past 6 months, circumcision (protective), and sexual activity (⩾7 years). Among women, risk factors associated with HIV-1 were age (25–29 years, ⩾35 years), marital history (one or more marriages), age difference from current spouse (⩾10 years), Luo ethnicity, STI symptoms in the past 6 months, and a STI history in the past 5 years. Most participants (96%) expressed a willingness to participate in a future HIV vaccine study. These findings will facilitate targeted intervention and prevention measures for HIV-1 infection in Kericho.

We assessed the geographic distribution of HIV infection among civilian applicants for US military service. High smoothed HIV prevalences were observed among white applicants in California, Texas, Florida, New York, and New Jersey, and among African-American applicants in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Washington DC, North and South Carolina, Florida, and California. Three HIV spatial clusters were found among whites: New York/New Jersey, southern California, and in south and central Texas. Among African-Americans, three HIV spatial clusters were found: New York/New Jersey, Washington DC/Virginia, and south and central California. The South accounted for a significant proportion of HIV-infected African-American applicants.

We have conducted studies with existing rapid HIV-1 serology technology for applicability in military operations. Studies on fresh and frozen serum and differing HIV sub- types have been conducted in both the research and field environments. Testing has been compared to reference technology for calculation of operating characteristics. Conclusion: Rapid HIV-1 testing technology is an evolving field subject to market demands. Several tests exist that support warfighter use in the field. However, these tests should still be utilized in the context of the medical risk decision making process.

Objective: To analyze HIV incidence rate (IR) trends among white and African-American active duty US Army personnel between 1986 and 2003. Methods: Joinpoint regression was applied to identify time periods when significant changes in HIV IRs occurred, along with the corresponding annual percentage changes (APCs). Results: African-Americans had a higher IR than white personnel (0.34/1000 vs. 0.07/1000; P < 0.001). Among white personnel, 2 significant time periods of changing HIV IRs were found: between 1986 and 1989 (APC = -31.1; P = 0.006) and between 1989 and 2003 (APC = -5.7; P = 0.003). Among African-Americans, a significant decline in HIV IRs was observed only between 1986 and 1991 (APC = -19.4; P < 0.001). This study revealed that the HIV IRs seem to have increased in 2 African-American groups: unmarried personnel and health care professionals. Conclusion: This cohort study (1,280 incident HIV infections among 1.5 million persons with 8.4 million person-years of follow-up) provides invaluable information on HIV trends in the United States Army. Despite an overall decline in HIV IRs, certain subpopulation among African-American personnel were observed to have increasing HIV IRs. Future research is needed to identify the current behavioral risk factors associated with HIV infection among US Army personnel.

The objective was to determine the association between the incidence of HIV-1 infection and the genetic complexity of HIV-1 strains in 2 geographic strata within Rakai District Uganda. Study volunteers with recent HIV-1 infections during the period 1997 through 2003 were recruited from 10 communities that were geographically stratified as a main road trading center (n = 5) or a secondary road trading village (n = 5). Cryopreserved plasma was available from 384 volunteers and was the source of viral RNA for genotyping by the multiregion hybridization assay. Hazard ratios (HRs) for a single HIV subtype a recombinant form or dual infection for gender and geographic strata were obtained using Cox proportional hazards analysis. The HIV-1 incidence rate during the period 1999 through 2002 was 1.3 per 100 person-years (PYs) in the trading centers and 1.1 per 100 PYs in the trading villages. The HR for infection with an HIV-1 recombinant strain in trading centers relative to trading villages was 2.3 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.0 to 6.7). Among those who changed residence between village strata the HR for a recombinant HIV-1 infection was 8.1 (95% CI: 0.4 to 47.7). HIV-1 incidence and genetic complexity are associated with geographic strata and population mobility in Rakai District and are important variables to be considered in planning and recruitment for vaccine trials. (authors)

To study the molecular epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) strains among men who have sex with men (MSM), the main high-risk group for HIV infection in Colombia, 113 HIV-positive MSM subjects recruited in Bogota during the year 2002 were genotyped. By heteroduplex mobility assay (env HMA) all samples were classified as subtype B. Partial sequencing of the protease and the reverse transcriptase (Pro/RT) regions performed on a random subset of 10 samples revealed that nine were classified as subtype B, and one sample was subtype F. The specimen that is subtype F in pol and subtype B in env is likely to be is either a recombinant or a dual infection. In this study, we identify the HIV F subtype for the first time in Colombia.

To study the molecular epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strains in Medellín, Colombia, 115 HIV-1-positive individuals who were recruited from an HIV outpatient hospital (Universitario San Vicente de Paul) during the period from July 2001 to January 2002 were genotyped. All samples were analyzed by envelope heteroduplex mobility assay and found to be subtype B. Twenty-four samples were randomly selected for sequencing of the protease and the reverse transcriptase regions; all isolates were found to be subtype B. Phylogenetic analysis of seven nearly full-length genomes showed that all samples were subtype B. This study shows that the HIV epidemic in Colombia continues to be dominated by the subtype B virus. The predominance of subtype B genotypes of HIV-1 strains in Medellín resembles what is seen in the nearby countries of Peru, Ecuador, and Venezuela.

Background: Transfusion-transmitted infections (TTIs) constitute a major health problem worldwide where routine screening of blood or blood products is improperly done, and where non-medical injecting medications and/or drug use are prevalent. Prevalence and risk factors vary by geographic location and by the specific TTI (including HIV-1, HBV, HCV and HTLV-I). Objective: To determine theprevalence and risk factors associated with TTIs among a sample of multi-transfused adult patients in Peru. Study design: A cross-sectionalmulti-center study was conducted across seven major hospitals in Peru from February 2003 to September 2004. Self-reported behavior information (medical procedures, number of sexual partners, and drug use history) was analyzed, along with a review of exposure history from hospital medical records. Prevalences were calculated by TTI for different exposures, along with unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios for infection risk. Results: Overall, 192 (54.7%) of 351 multi-transfused patients were found infected with one or more TTIs.Number of transfusion units, years of transfusion history (6 or more), and number of treatment facilities (2 or more) were associated with HCV infection. Hemodialysis history was a common risk factor associated with HBV, HCV and HTLV-I infection. HIV infection was associated only with total number of transfusion units received. Conclusions: High prevalences of HBV and HCV infection were foundamong Peruvian multi-transfused patients and were associated with a past history and number of blood transfusions, as well as with past hemodialysis procedures. TTIs continue to represent a significant public health problem in Peru. Continued vigilant attention to blood safety procedures, including universal screening and health care provider education, is recommended.

The objective was to characterize HIV-1 strains in a potential vaccine trial cohort (CODE) in the Mbeya region of southwest Tanzania. Study volunteers (n = 3096) were recruited from urban areas in Mbeya Town using two different recruitment strategies and in a nearby rural village. Cryopreserved plasma from 507 HIV-1 prevalent cases was the source of viral RNA for HIV-1 genotyping by the Multi-region Hybridization Assay the MHAacd and selected strains were confirmed by complete genome sequencing. The overall HIV-1 prevalence was 16.6% [95% confidence interval (CI) 15.3– 17.9] within the cohort. HIV-1 prevalence was higher among women and in urban areas. Recruitment through advertisement targeted a high-risk urban male population for HIV-1 infection [adjusted odds ratio (adj. OR) 1.68; 95% CI 1.13–2.51] when compared with men recruited door-to-door. The complexity of the HIV-1 epidemic was also higher in urban areas evidenced by the high-risk of HIV-1 infection with a recombinant strain (adj. OR 2.69; 95% CI 1.08–6.69) and HIV-1 dual infection (adj. OR 5.16; 95% CI 1.07–24.9) mainly driven by urban men recruited through advertisement. Overall the urban epidemic was more genetically complex with higher prevalence and more recombinants and dual infections. Vaccine trials in Mbeya region can assess a complex HIV-1 population dynamic and determine vaccine efficacy in relationship to the genetic diversity of HIV-1 strains that challenge vaccines. (authors)

We report a prospective comparison of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 testing by enzyme immunoassay and Western blot with four rapid tests of 486 subjects performed in rural Kenya. Rapid test sensitivity was 100%. Specificity ranged from 99.1 to 100%. Combined use of two Food and Drug Administration-approved rapid tests yielded a single false-positive result.

Objective To monitor HIV-1 infection trends among United States Army personnel, a predominantly young population group, tested between 1985 and 1999 for HIV-1 infection. Design Demographic correlates of HIV-1 infection were assessed in the cohort via epidemiologic analysis. Methods Annual seroconversion incidence rates were calculated per 1000 person-years (PY) of follow-up. Poisson regression was used to assess demographic correlates of HIV-1 seroconversion risk. Results There were 1275 seroconverters among 2 004 903 active duty Army personnel accounting for 7 700 231 PY of follow-up. The HIV-1 incidence rate (IR) was 0.17/1000 PY [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.16–0.17]. The highest IR was observed in the first year of testing (IR, 0.43/1000 PY; 95% CI, 0.33–0.52). The IR for male and female soldiers was 0.18/1000 PY and 0.08/1000 PY, respectively. HIV-1 incidence declined with age. Significant risk of HIV-1 seroconversion was associated with age [> 30 years old relative risk (RR), 1.51], race (Black RR, 4.61; Hispanic RR, 2.76), gender (male RR, 3.12), marital status (unmarried RR, 2.01) and rank (enlisted RR, 2.50). Conclusions HIV-1 seroconversions in the US Army have been low and stable since the early 1990s. Continued HIV-1 incidence surveillance in the US Army provides information on the status of the epidemic in the Army, as well as important corroborative data on HIV-1 infections throughout the US.