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Two-dimensional crystals with angstrom-scale pores are widely considered as candidates for a next generation of molecular separation technologies aiming to provide extreme, exponentially large selectivity combined with high flow rates. No such pores have been demonstrated experimentally. Here we study gas transport through individual graphene pores created by low intensity exposure to low kV electrons. Helium and hydrogen permeate easily through these pores whereas larger species such as xenon and methane are practically blocked. Permeating gases experience activation barriers that increase quadratically with molecules' kinetic diameter, and the effective diameter of the created pores is estimated as ~2 angstroms, about one missing carbon ring. Our work reveals stringent conditions for achieving the long sought-after exponential selectivity using porous two-dimensional membranes and suggests limits on their possible performance.

Capillary condensation of water is ubiquitous in nature and technology. It routinely occurs in granular and porous media, can strongly alter such properties as adhesion, lubrication, friction and corrosion, and is important in many processes employed by microelectronics, pharmaceutical, food and other industries. The century-old Kelvin equation is commonly used to describe condensation phenomena and shown to hold well for liquid menisci with diameters as small as several nm. For even smaller capillaries that are involved in condensation under ambient humidity and, hence, of particular practical interest, the Kelvin equation is expected to break down, because the required confinement becomes comparable to the size of water molecules. Here we take advantage of van der Waals assembly of two-dimensional crystals to create atomic-scale capillaries and study condensation inside. Our smallest capillaries are less than 4 angstroms in height and can accommodate just a monolayer of water. Surprisingly, even at this scale, the macroscopic Kelvin equation using the characteristics of bulk water is found to describe accurately the condensation transition in strongly hydrophilic (mica) capillaries and remains qualitatively valid for weakly hydrophilic (graphene) ones. We show that this agreement is somewhat fortuitous and can be attributed to elastic deformation of capillary walls, which suppresses giant oscillatory behavior expected due to commensurability between atomic-scale confinement and water molecules. Our work provides a much-needed basis for understanding of capillary effects at the smallest possible scale important in many realistic situations.

Despite being only one-atom thick, defect-free graphene is considered to be completely impermeable to all gases and liquids. This conclusion is based on theory and supported by experiments that could not detect gas permeation through micrometre-size membranes within a detection limit of 10^5 to 10^6 atoms per second. Here, using small monocrystalline containers tightly sealed with graphene, we show that defect-free graphene is impermeable with an accuracy of eight to nine orders of magnitude higher than in the previous experiments. We could discern permeation of just a few helium atoms per hour, and this detection limit is also valid for all other tested gases (neon, nitrogen, oxygen, argon, krypton and xenon), except for hydrogen. Hydrogen shows noticeable permeation, even though its molecule is larger than helium and should experience a higher energy barrier. The puzzling observation is attributed to a two-stage process that involves dissociation of molecular hydrogen at catalytically active graphene ripples, followed by adsorbed atoms flipping to the other side of the graphene sheet with a relatively low activation energy of about 1.0 electronvolt, a value close to that previously reported for proton transport. Our work provides a key reference for the impermeability of two-dimensional materials and is important from a fundamental perspective and for their potential applications.

It has long been an aspirational goal to create artificial structures that allow fast permeation of water but reject even the smallest hydrated ions, replicating the feat achieved by nature in protein channels (e.g., aquaporins). Despite recent progress in creating nanoscale pores and capillaries, these structures still remain distinctly larger than protein channels. We report capillaries made by effectively extracting one atomic plane from bulk crystals, which leaves a two-dimensional slit of a few angstroms in height. Water moves through these capillaries with little resistance, whereas no permeation could be detected even for such small ions as Na+ and Cl-. Only protons (H+) can diffuse through monolayer water inside the capillaries. These observations improve our understanding of molecular transport at the atomic scale.

Gas permeation through nanoscale pores is ubiquitous in nature and plays an important role in a plethora of technologies. Because the pore size is typically smaller than the mean free path of gas molecules, their flow is conventionally described by the Knudsen theory that assumes diffuse reflection (random-angle scattering) at confining walls. This assumption has proven to hold surprisingly well in experiment, and only a few cases of partially specular (mirror-like) reflection are known. Here we report gas transport through angstrom-scale channels with atomically-flat walls and show that surface scattering can be both diffuse or specular, depending on fine details of the surface atomic landscape, and quantum effects contribute to the specularity at room temperature. The channels made from graphene or boron nitride allow a helium gas flow that is orders of magnitude faster than expected from the theory. This is explained by specular surface scattering, which leads to ballistic transport and frictionless gas flow. Similar channels but with molybdenum disulfide walls exhibit much slower permeation that remains well described by Knudsen diffusion. The difference is attributed to stronger atomic corrugations at MoS2 surfaces, which are similar in height to the size of transported atoms and their de Broglie wavelength. The importance of the latter, matter-wave contribution is corroborated by the observation of a reversed isotope effect in which the mass flow of hydrogen is notably higher than that of deuterium, in contrast to the relation expected for classical flows. Our results provide insights into atomistic details of molecular permeation, which so far could be accessed only in simulations, and show a possibility of studying gas transport under a controlled confinement comparable to the quantum-mechanical size of atoms.

Graphene oxide (GO) membranes continue to attract intense interest due to their unique molecular sieving properties combined with fast permeation rates. However, the membranes' use has been limited mostly to aqueous solutions because GO membranes appear to be impermeable to organic solvents, a phenomenon not fully understood yet. Here, we report efficient and fast filtration of organic solutions through GO laminates containing smooth two-dimensional (2D) capillaries made from flakes with large sizes of ~ 10-20 micron. Without sacrificing their sieving characteristics, such membranes can be made exceptionally thin, down to ~ 10 nm, which translates into fast permeation of not only water but also organic solvents. We attribute the organic solvent permeation and sieving properties of ultrathin GO laminates to the presence of randomly distributed pinholes that are interconnected by short graphene channels with a width of 1 nm. With increasing the membrane thickness, the organic solvent permeation rates decay exponentially but water continues to permeate fast, in agreement with previous reports. The application potential of our ultrathin laminates for organic-solvent nanofiltration is demonstrated by showing >99.9% rejection of various organic dyes with small molecular weights dissolved in methanol. Our work significantly expands possibilities for the use of GO membranes in purification, filtration and related technologies.

It has been an ultimate but seemingly distant goal of nanofluidics to controllably fabricate capillaries with dimensions approaching the size of small ions and water molecules. We report ion transport through ultimately narrow slits that are fabricated by effectively removing a single atomic plane from a bulk crystal. The atomically flat angstrom-scale slits exhibit little surface charge, allowing elucidation of the role of steric effects. We find that ions with hydrated diameters larger than the slit size can still permeate through, albeit with reduced mobility. The confinement also leads to a notable asymmetry between anions and cations of the same diameter. Our results provide a platform for studying effects of angstrom-scale confinement, which is important for development of nanofluidics, molecular separation and other nanoscale technologies.

Nanometre-scale pores and capillaries have long been studied because of their importance in many natural phenomena and their use in numerous applications. A more recent development is the ability to fabricate artificial capillaries with nanometre dimensions, which has enabled new research on molecular transport and led to the emergence of nanofluidics. But surface roughness in particular makes it challenging to produce capillaries with precisely controlled dimensions at this spatial scale. Here we report the fabrication of narrow and smooth capillaries through van der Waals assembly, with atomically flat sheets at the top and bottom separated by spacers made of two-dimensional crystals with a precisely controlled number of layers. We use graphene and its multilayers as archetypal two-dimensional materials to demonstrate this technology, which produces structures that can be viewed as if individual atomic planes had been removed from a bulk crystal to leave behind flat voids of a height chosen with atomic-scale precision. Water transport through the channels, ranging in height from one to several dozen atomic planes, is characterized by unexpectedly fast flow (up to 1 metre per second) that we attribute to high capillary pressures (about 1,000 bar) and large slip lengths. For channels that accommodate only a few layers of water, the flow exhibits a marked enhancement that we associate with an increased structural order in nanoconfined water. Our work opens up an avenue to making capillaries and cavities with sizes tunable to {\aa}ngstr\"om precision, and with permeation properties further controlled through a wide choice of atomically flat materials available for channel walls.

Adsorbed layers of water are ubiquitously present at surfaces and fill in microscopic pores, playing a central role in many phenomena in such diverse fields as materials science, geology, biology, tribology, nanotechnology. Despite such importance, the crystal structure of nanoconfined water remains largely unknown. Here we report high-resolution electron microscopy of mono- and few- layers of water confined between two graphene sheets, an archetypal example of hydrophobic confinement. Confined water is found to form square ice at room temperature - a phase with symmetry principally different from the conventional tetrahedral geometry of hydrogen bonding. The square ice has a high packing density with a lattice constant of 2.83 angstrom and during TEM observation assembles in bi- and tri- layer crystallites exhibiting AA stacking. Our findings are important for understanding of interfacial phenomena and, in particular, shed light on ultrafast transport of water through hydrophobic nanocapillaries. Our MD simulations show that square ice is likely to be common inside hydrophobic nanochannels, independent of their exact atomic makeup.

Graphene is impermeable to all gases and liquids, and even such a small atom as hydrogen is not expected to penetrate through graphene's dense electronic cloud within billions of years. Here we show that monolayers of graphene and hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) are unexpectedly permeable to thermal protons, hydrogen ions under ambient conditions. As a reference, no proton transport could be detected for a monolayer of molybdenum disulfide, bilayer graphene or multilayer hBN. At room temperature, monolayer hBN exhibits the highest proton conductivity with a low activation energy of about 0.3 eV but graphene becomes a better conductor at elevated temperatures such that its resistivity to proton flow is estimated to fall below 10^-3 Ohm per cm2 above 250 C. The proton barriers can be further reduced by decorating monolayers with catalytic nanoparticles. These atomically thin proton conductors could be of interest for many hydrogen-based technologies., Comment: submitted, pre-edited version

There has been intense interest in filtration and separation properties of graphene-based materials that can have well-defined nanometer pores and exhibit low frictional water flow inside them. Here we investigate molecular permeation through graphene oxide laminates. They are vacuum-tight in the dry state but, if immersed in water, act as molecular sieves blocking all solutes with hydrated radii larger than 4.5A. Smaller ions permeate through the membranes with little impedance, many orders of magnitude faster than the diffusion mechanism can account for. We explain this behavior by a network of nanocapillaries that open up in the hydrated state and accept only species that fit in. The ultrafast separation of small salts is attributed to an 'ion sponge' effect that results in highly concentrated salt solutions inside graphene capillaries.

We present observations, analysis and results for the first-year operation of AMiBA, an interferometric experiment designed to study cosmology via the measurement of Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). AMiBA is the first CMB interferometer operating at 3 mm to have reported successful results, currently with seven close-packed antennas of 60-cm diameter giving a synthesized resolution of around 6'. During 2007 AMiBA detected the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effects (SZE) of six galaxy clusters at redshift 0.091 <= z <= 0.322. An observing strategy with on-off-source switching is used to minimize the effects from electronic offset and ground pickup. Planets were used to test the observational capability of AMiBA and to calibrate the conversion from correlator time-lag data to visibilities. The detailed formalism for data analysis is given. We summarize our early tests including observations of planets and quasars, and present images, visibility profiles, the estimated central coordinates, sizes, and SZE amplitudes of the galaxy clusters. Science results are summarized. We also discuss possible systematic effects in the results., Comment: Accepted by ApJ (Dec.23, 2008); 11 pages, 9 figures, 6 tables

This ATD has the goal of enabling the integration of three separate measurement techniques to characterize the solid-liquid interface of directionally solidified materials in real-time. Arrays of film-based metal thermocouple elements are under development along with compact Seebeck furnaces suitable for interfacing with separately developed X-ray Transmission Microscopes. Results of applying film arrays to furnace profiling are shown, demonstrating their ability to identify a previously undetected hardware flaw in the development of a second-generation compact furnace. Results of real-time furnace profiling also confirmed that the compact furnace design effectively isolates the temperature profiles in two halves of the furnace, a necessary feature. This isolation had only been inferred previously from the characteristics of Seebeck data reported. Results from a 24-thermocouple array successfully monitoring heating and isothermal cooling of a tin sample are shown. The importance of non-intrusion by the arrays, as well as furnace design, on the profiling of temperature gradients is illustrated with example measurements. Further developments underway for effectively combining all three measurements are assessed in terms of improved x-ray transmission, increased magnification, integral arrays with minimum intrusion, integral scales for velocity measurements and other features being incorporated into the third generation Seebeck furnace under construction.

In this paper, we show that force-based reasoning, for identifying a cluster of parts that can be decomposed naturally by the applied force, plays an important role in selecting feasible subassemblies and analyzing subassembly stability in assembly planning.

Many of the approaches proposed to date for assembly planning have focused on the geometric reasoning of path interferences among parts to generate assembly sequences efficiently.