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In recent years, there has been a growing interest in analyzing the manufacturing techniques of Byzantine church doors in laboratory settings. However, the connection between the iconography and significance of the décor of church doors and their liturgical performativity, as well as their parallels with iconostases in Byzantium, remained a relatively underexplored area of study. This article seeks to delve deeper into these intersections. By focusing on the relationship between the iconography of church doors in Middle to Late Byzantium and their connection to the sacred space and liturgical practices, I aim to shed light on how these artworks played a crucial role in the sacred experience of the Byzantines. This exploration will not highlight only the aesthetic evolution of church door artwork but also emphasize the communal and embodied nature of the religious experience during the Byzantine era. Their intricate designs were not merely decorative elements but served as portals to the divine, enriching the salvation journey of worshippers as they crossed the threshold into the liturgical spaces. By conducting an examination of the development of door iconography and their symbolism throughout the empire's history, the transformation of narrative depictions from the Middle Byzantine era to the Palaiologan period, culminating in a convergence of symbolic meanings within the sacred space of the church, is delineated. This transformation is further exemplified by a sculpted church door from the Principality of Wallachia. By bridging the gap between art history and religious studies, this article aims to rekindle interest in the profound symbolism and significance of Byzantine church doors and their relation to sacred liturgical space, offering a broader perspective on an important aspect of Byzantine heritage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two previously unpublished Greek inscriptions name Hierodeacon Theophylact from Naxos as the donor of a silver reliquary made in 1817 for the forearm of St Onuphrius the Younger and of a silver paten made in 1827. Both objects were given to the Pogoyan Monastery of SS Peter and Paul, whose abbot Theophylact was, and carry chased images of these two apostles. The identity of the monastery itself is ambiguous: this could be either a convent once located near Ostanitsa (modern Aidonochori) in Epirus and documented as the recipient of Russian and Wallachian donation charters, or one near the town of Lyaskovets in central Bulgaria. St Onuphrius the Younger is an equally enigmatic figure: he might perhaps be one of the three Russian monks of that name who attained local saints’ status in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Hierodeacon Theophylact’s dedicatory inscription of 1817 states that Onuphrius’ forearm was given to the Pogoyan Monastery in AM 7121 (AD 1612/13) by Radu, Voivod of Wallachia, i.e. by Prince Radu IX Mihnea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After losing Zadar to Venice, Sigismund of Luxemburg and the friendly Republic of Genoa declare war on the Republic of Venice, Europe’s major spice supplier at the time. Consequently, an alternative supply chain develops: Levantine goods brought by the Genovese to the ports of the Danube and the Black Sea are transported by Wallachian and Transylvanian merchants to Buda, Kosice, and Lviv. By the beginning of the 16th century, this route accounts for a five-time larger supply of Levantine wares reaching Buda compared to the Adriatic Coast route. This paper focuses on the impact of Levantine transit trade on the cities of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldova at the turn of the century. By modelling the trading routes of this area as a network, we simulate the flow of Levantine goods, investigate the possibility of brokerage between the three regions, and identify which cities occupy favourable or influential network positions.

The present paper has as its focus the decoration of the Princely Church’s semi-dome; an iconographic context which offers a display of the enthroned ever-Virgin holding Jesus in her arms. Such a decoration is not normally problematic if it were not for the adjunction of two holy figures on the sides. This original screen captures familiar devotional practices, as well as bringing together both the patronal aspect, linked directly to St. Nicholas to whom the church is dedicated, and the liturgical one, related to St. John Chrysostom, in his quality as the author of a Liturgy. The foundation of the Wallachian Ecclesiastical Metropolis in 1359 was the occasion for this innovative display. It is stated that Constantinopolitan norms were observed in the choice of the iconography yet its affiliation to a precise monument remains unresolved. The painters intended, in this case, to portray not merely an ordinary Virgin and Child, but to portray what is to be considered a local identity pattern. The last part of the article is dedicated to the liturgical inscription under the semi-dome. In author’s opinion, its presence reflects a debate aroused at the Lavra Monastery on Mount Athos. An analysis of the historical context suggests the years for the completion of the wall-paintings at an already advanced date, most likely, 1364/5.

The present text is a small commentary on a classic case of cultural conflict that occurred in Wallachia in 1835 under the Organic Regulations regime. Starting from the discovery of some unknown documents in the archives of Romanați county, relating to the public proclamation of the non-existence of the plant iarba fiarelor (white swallowwort), which was made use of by treasure hunters at the time, we have tried to establish what was at stake in this conflict. Popular culture suddenly became a threat to the authorities of a modern state that was operating a real process of socio-cultural dressage in that period, a move that inevitably brought it into a precisely datable conflict with those who still remained faithful to a folklore culture. One of those happy cases in which history comes to the aid of ethnology.

The challenge in obtaining objective parameters for evaluating the aesthetic appeal of buildings is what we try to explain through a case study, presenting a pioneering methodology that can be applied and adapted to different architectural styles. Our focus is on a substantial investigation of Romanian Orthodox churches in the Wallachia region, which exhibit striking similarities from their early stylistic developments in the 16th century to contemporary examples. By examining the geometric relationships within their interior spaces, we aim to derive objective insights that enable an alternative classification. This classification, in turn, helps us measure the emotional impact these spaces have on users or visitors, influencing emotions based on spatial proportions. Through these relationships, we can evaluate the importance of different buildings of the same category, classify them and, objectively explain their differences. Applying the findings of this study, along with specific variables, to other architectural contexts allows us to address user preferences more effectively to enhance architectural designs by improving comfort and the quality of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the issue of Danubian Principalities in the negotiations between Russia, Prussia, Austria and Poland-Lithuania during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) as well as in the preparations for the first partition of the Commonwealth. The text answers the question why the partitioning powers did not hand over Moldavia and Wallachia to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as compensation for the partition. The study shows how the main actors in the negotiations used the issue of Moldavia and Wallachia. It shows that none of the parties treated this issue as a really important factor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 2/14 September 1829, the Peace Treaty of Adrianople between the Tsarist Empire and the Ottoman Empire was concluded with important effects for the two Romanian countries, Moldavia and Wallachia. Their political development was regulated by a separate document, an integral part of the text of the Treaty. The separate Act confirmed the agreements made by the Tsarist Empire and the Ottoman Empire in the text of the Akkerman (White Citadel) Convention on 25 September/7 October 1826, on the election of the Romanian ruler, following the wish and consent expressed by the Sublime Porte. In addition to these political issues, important for the topic covered in this article were the provisions related to the protection of the borders, especially the right bank of the Danube and the islands close to the left bank of the great river that were in proximity to the Ottoman Empire. According to the Adrianople Treaty of 1829, the thalweg along the Danube was considered the border between Moldova and Wallachia on the entire common sector until the confluence with the Prut River, agreement protected by the Sublime Porte. In 1830, after the Treaty of Adrianople, a commission composed of the delegates of Wallachia, Moldavia, the Tsarist Empire and the Ottoman Empire proceeded to delimiting the river border between the Ottoman Empire and the Romanian Countries by fixing the existing thalweg at that time. Obviously, natural phenomena contributed over time to its modification, so that, after the Congress of Berlin in 1878, when it was decided to trace the land border between the countries bordering the Danube, a series of incidents at the Romanian-Bulgarian river border occurred. In this context, it is highlighted the strategic and economic importance of the Danube. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 the advance of G.A. Rumiantsev's First Army after its great victories at Riabaia Mogila, Larga, and Kagul was slowed by several factors, including the lack of adequate maps of southern Moldavia and Wallachia and the Turkish fortress line along the Danube. This problem was finally addressed by Lt General Friedrich Wilhelm von Bauer (1731–1783), a talented engineer in Russian service, a hero of the Riabaia Mogila and Larga battles, and author of a project to organize a Russian General Staff along Prussian lines. Bauer's surveying work facilitated the Russians' successful drive across the Danube in 1773 and this surveying work informed the remarkably detailed map of Moldavia he published in 1775 and 1781. The data he gathered for a similar map of Wallachia was published in his Mémoires historiques et géographiques sur la Valachie, avec un prospectus d'un Atlas géographique et militaire de la derniére guerre entre la Russie et la Porte Ottomanne (1778). Bauer's work as a geographer and cartographer contributed to European knowledge of the geography and chorography of the Danubian region and illustrated the increasing impact of technicalism upon Russian military development in the eighteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Hipogrifo: revista de literatura y cultura del siglo de oro is the property of Hipogrifo: revista de literatura y cultura del siglo de oro and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article deals with the nature of the political relationship between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan states. The various forms of dependency led to varied limitations on the functioning of these states, espe- cially in the field of their international politics. The Ottoman Empire's relations with weaker, allied, vassal and subordinate states were shaped by the following factors: the historical period, the political and legal nature of the mutual relations, religion, the current political and military situation. On the basis of analysis of the sources and scientific literature, it has been shown that the Ottoman Empire was unable to prevent more or less official poli- cy by its subordinate centres, as long as they had any state structures (even if they were only of a self-governing nature). In the 14th century, most of the Balkan states found themselves as allies and tributaries of the Ottoman Empire. The alliance with the Ottomans did not limit political relations with countries uncommitted against the Ottomans. In the 15th century there was a process of more and more clearly political subordination of the Balkan states which added two important elements to earlier financial and military obligations — investment and obe- dience. In the 16th century, it was extremely important to surrender to the King of Hungary John Zápolya un- der the authority of Sultan Suleiman. It also resulted in the Ottoman Empire taking over direct political control of the Romanian principalities: Wallachia and Moldavia. The Sultan was not able to fully control them, they of- ten carried out independent political activities, connected with the Poland-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Holy Empire, and Transylvania. In the 18th century the process of building the Balkan nation states launched, albeit very slowly. In the 19th century, any independence, even very limited, was conducive to the rapid formation of their own independent statehood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai, Historia is the property of Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article aims to explain the rise of Western art forms in the musical creation of the Romanian Principalities in the first half of the nineteenth century, as dictated by a particular European political and economic dynamic. I analyse the spread of Western music – usually described as a consequence of the gradual modernization of Romanian society – in terms of the power relations between the European core and a newly integrated periphery at the Eastern border of the continent. To illustrate this change, I discuss Edward Said's concept of orientalism which helps describe the early interactions between Western musicians and professionals and the local music traditions and customs. I then show how these interactions gave the former access to a distinctive musical material used in compositions targeting an expanding European music market. In an age of national struggle in the Romanian Principalities, national music was both a concept and a practice in demand by the local intelligentsia and fostered by composers. However, in addition to this agreement, the concept of national music signalled some significant societal changes that I elucidate by looking at class stratification and the evolution of musical taste. In the final part of the analysis, I draw on dependency theory authors such as Samir Amin and Daniel Chirot to argue that musical life in the first half of the nineteenth century in Wallachia and Moldavia was closely mirroring the economic development of these countries. Thus, I demonstrate that the emergence of the Romanian school of composition must be understood not only at a national level but also within a broader political, economic and social context, defined by the gradual transition to capitalist modes of production and consumption that happened in the first decades of the nineteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores how the visual culture of Eastern Europe has been studied and often excluded from the grander narratives of art history and more specialized conversations due to political and cultural limitations, as well as bias in the field. The history and visual culture of Eastern Europe have been shaped by contacts with Byzantium, transforming, in local contexts, aspects of the rich legacy of the empire before and after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. This study expands and theorizes the eclectic visual cultures of Eastern Europe during the late medieval period by focusing on two ecclesiastical buildings of the 14th century built under princely and noble patronage in regions of North Macedonia and Wallachia, respectively: the Church of St George at Staro Nagoričane, near Skopje, modern-day North Macedonia (1315–17) and Cozia Monastery in Călimănești, Wallachia, modern-day Romania (founded 1388). The 14th century was a transformative period for the regions to the north and south of the Danube River, establishing the contacts that were to develop further during the 15th century and especially after 1453. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper has as its focus the decoration of the Princely Church's semi-dome; an iconographic context which offers a display of the enthroned ever-Virgin holding Jesus in her arms. Such a decoration is not normally problematic if it were not for the adjunction of two holy figures on the sides. This original screen captures familiar devotional practices, as well as bringing together both the patronal aspect, linked directly to St. Nicholas to whom the church is dedicated, and the liturgical one, related to St. John Chrysostom, in his quality as the author of a Liturgy. The foundation of the Wallachian Ecclesiastical Metropolis in 1359 was the occasion for this innovative display. It is stated that Constantinopolitan norms were observed in the choice of the iconography yet its affiliation to a precise monument remains unresolved. The painters intended, in this case, to portray not merely an ordinary Virgin and Child, but to portray what is to be considered a local identity pattern. The last part of the article is dedicated to the liturgical inscription under the semi-dome. In author's opinion, its presence reflects a debate aroused at the Lavra Monastery on Mount Athos. An analysis of the historical context suggests the years for the completion of the wall-paintings at an already advanced date, most likely, 1364/5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in analyzing the manufacturing techniques of Byzantine church doors in laboratory settings. However, the connection between the iconography and significance of the décor of church doors and their liturgical performativity, as well as their parallels with iconostases in Byzantium, remained a relatively underexplored area of study. This article seeks to delve deeper into these intersections. By focusing on the relationship between the iconography of church doors in Middle to Late Byzantium and their connection to the sacred space and liturgical practices, I aim to shed light on how these artworks played a crucial role in the sacred experience of the Byzantines. This exploration will not highlight only the aesthetic evolution of church door artwork but also emphasize the communal and embodied nature of the religious experience during the Byzantine era. Their intricate designs were not merely decorative elements but served as portals to the divine, enriching the salvation journey of worshippers as they crossed the threshold into the liturgical spaces. By conducting an examination of the development of door iconography and their symbolism throughout the empire’s history, the transformation of narrative depictions from the Middle Byzantine era to the Palaiologan period, culminating in a convergence of symbolic meanings within the sacred space of the church, is delineated. This transformation is further exemplified by a sculpted church door from the Principality of Wallachia. By bridging the gap between art history and religious studies, this article aims to rekindle interest in the profound symbolism and significance of Byzantine church doors and their relation to sacred liturgical space, offering a broader perspective on an important aspect of Byzantine heritage.

The 19th century redefined the place of nations within empires. Enlightenment ideas of mother-tongue education, natural rights and liberty join the imperial center’s aim to attract loyalties, gain allegiance, create economic wealth and educate a citizenry attached to the state. In south-eastern Europe, the fragile coexistence of three empires (Ottoman, Russian and Austrian) was disrupted by the way in which the neighboring ethnic groups intended to adjust the En-lightenment ideas to suit the development of their own cultures. The present study traces the transfers brought by the Transylvanian intellectual émigrés to the field of education from Austrian Transylvania to the neighboring Ottoman principality of Wallachia. Coming from the ranks of the Greek Catholic intel-lectuals – an intermediary stratum between the imperial center, the privileged aristocracy and the majority of Romanian peasants – they pursued, at the same time, their professional development and the rise of literacy in Wallachia. As school inspectors, they intervened administratively and pedagogically in the school network recently established in Wallachia. Their leader, Ioan Maiorescu, questioned the Russian-style model of modernization and called for adapting Western models to the local reality to further the aim of cultural emancipation.

As part of a detailed investigation project focused on the painting materials and technical features used in Wallachia during the 17th and 18th century, the imperial icon "Mother of God with Child" from the Orthodox Church of the "Annunciation" in Râmnicu Vâlcea, Romania, was investigated before the restoration intervention. A minimally invasive multi-analytical approach consisting of high-resolution digital radiography, hyperspectral imaging, UV fluorescence imaging, portable X-ray fluorescence, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used. The results emphasized several key features, such as: the structure of the wooden panel, the nature of pigments and of the painting technique frequently used at that time, and various defects of the pictorial layer including traces of previous restoration works, most probably made at the end of the 18th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the spring of 1849, Emperor Franz Joseph appealed to Tsar Nicholas I for assistance in suppressing the struggle waged by the Hungarians in defence of their constitution and the right to self-determination. The encroachment of the almost 200,000-strong Russian army into Hungarian territory was decisive in the defeat of the uprising. The article takes a closer look at the fate of Captain Stanisław Jan Szydłowski, a Hungarian army officer from Poland, reconstructed on the basis of documents from Russian archives. How did Szydłowski end up in Tsarist captivity? How did it come about that he was later handed over to the Austrians and put before a court martial? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the significant Arnauts leaders at the beginning of the year 1821, one of note was Diamandi (Iamandi) Giuvara serdar, a faithful servant of the last Phanariot rulers of Wallachia, Ioan Gheorghe Caragea (1812-1818) and Alexandru Suțu (1819-1821), a "soldier" as he would call himself, during the extremely tumultuous and revolutionary events of the spring of 1821. Coming from the south of the Danube, most likely at the beginning of Ioan Gheorghe Caragea's rule, this Albanian had joined the ranks of the Arnauts, Balkan mercenaries in the service of the Phanariot prince, becoming the commander of all gendarme companies in the Oltenia region. This character gained fame in the fall of 1816, after the capture of the notorious outlaws Nikola Abraš and Iancu Jianu. At the beginning of the revolutionnary year 1821, we find him leading a company of Arnauts alongside sluger Tudor Vladimirescu, the initiator of the Romanian revolutionary movement in Wallachia. After the defeat of the Eterist troops by the Ottoman forces in the battle of Drăgășani (7/19 June 1821), in which Diamandi Giuvara refused to participate, we will find him and his Arnauts resisting an Ottoman siege within the fortified walls of Cozia Monastery. Finally convinced by the empty promises of binbashi Sava, another Arnaut leader who had willingly entered the service of the Turks, Diamandi Giuvara surrendered to the commander of the Ottoman military forces that had taken over Wallachia, with the promise of being pardoned for his previous actions. However, as soon as he was brought to Constantinople, Diamandi Giuvara was executed in the public square. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper examines how three residential buildings, edified in Romania in medieval and early modern times by the members of the Golescu family, were repurposed during the 20th and 21st centuries, that is, before, during and after the Romanian communist period. It considers the social and political circumstances in which the analysed examples of the Golescu residential buildings have changed owners, appearance and function during the last 80 years.

The early medieval settlement identified in 2019 on the west side of Târgșoru Vechi is one of the largest settlements so far investigated in Wallachia, dating from the end of the first millennium AD. Sampling for radiocarbon analysis was done from inside the houses (especially in the area of the fireplace), from the graves, as well as from one of the possible wells. Supplementary samples were also taken from a group of tombs (west-east oriented) previously studied. In this study, several pretreatment methods were applied to historical bones and teeth from the Târgșoru Vechi site, in order to remove different contaminants to ensure accurate AMS analysis. The C/N atomic weight ratio of the untreated and pretreated bones was observed to be a useful indicator for the most suitable processing method. After collagen was extracted, in the RoAMS laboratory from IFIN-HH, it was graphitized using the Automated Graphitization Equipment (AGE3) and the isotopic ratios 14C/12C, 13C/12C were measured with the 1MV Tandetron Accelerator. The radiocarbon age was in the estimated archaeological range between 1114 and 1256BP. After calendar ages were obtained, using the IntCal20 calibration curve the placement of the studied archeological site in time was confirmed, which paves the way for an extensive Târgșoru Vechi site investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following the general problematics of reformulating the concepts of “discourse” and “narrative” and treating cinematic products as textual objects, with incursions into the 21st century cinema as a realist-expositional medium of the social problems of the Other, the present paper aims, by contextualizing the film Aferim! (2015) by Radu Jude, to analyze the relationship between language, language and race, racialization, and representation. In short, it aims to analyze the position of linguistic racism in the admitted “realistic” and artistic presentation of the process of marginalization. Such academic analyses have become present internationally, especially with the development of the linguistic dimension of postcolonial studies and the emergence and expansion of the concept of political correctness and/or cultural sensitivity in the contemporary socio-cultural discourse, especially in direct relation to language, language, and visual media of artistic transposition. We must be remembered, however, that Roma people occupy a marginal place even in postcolonial analysis of otherness. In the Romanian space, with a strong intertextual character, Aferim! occupies a privileged place precisely because of the primacy given to the theme: the Roma slavery in the 19th century Wallachia, during the year 1853, which is a key-year, considering that the formal abolition of slavery took place only three years later, in 1856, in Wallachia. Intentionally subversive, Jude takes the historical form of the popular films from the communist period and turns it against itself, while also adding the American-inspired aesthetic of Westerns. The multiplicity of perspectives is present, but the „intimacy” belongs to the white, oppressive characters, putting the viewer in an uncomfortable position that belongs to them historically. Following the results of the quantitative study of the present work, where the most often used word is „cocoane” [lord] in all its declined versions, Aferim! is thus a film about power dynamics, a dynamic in which the Roma are the Other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Acta Historiae Artis Slovenica is the property of Scientific Research Centre of Slovenian Academy of Sciences & Arts and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the forage yield and chemical composition of six variants including two alfalfa cultivars, a bird’s-foot trefoil cultivar, and three grass mixtures selected as valuable biological material for potential riparian grasslands’ renovation. The experiments were carried out on plots in Dragomiresti village located near Dambovita River riparian area. One level of fertilization (120 g m-2) was considered for each variant. The plant material had high concentrations of dry matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, and phosphorus, respectively. All the fertilized samples exhibited higher concentrations of dry matter, nitrates, and phosphorus than the corresponding non-fertilized samples. High concentrations of water-soluble carbohydrates were determined for alfalfa which showed also the smallest amount of neutral detergent fiber. The maximum ADF content was found in the fertilized Valahia alfalfa cultivar and the non-fertilized complex grass mixture. Regarding the potential for riparian grassland renovation, we can conclude that the Valahia alfalfa cultivar and the complex grass mixture with five species performed better in terms of forage yield and overall quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study presents a synthetic canonical analysis on the organization of monastic life in the Romanian Orthodox Church, in the period 1859-1866. The reign of Alexandru Ioan Cuza was a period of crisis of Romanian monasticism. "With the middle of the 19th century, our monastic life enters a period of crisis and the dominance of the secular spirit. It is true, in the meantime, some attempts were made to get out of the impasse, but the fruits did not always correspond to the efforts" (Viaţa monahală în ultimii 10 ani: 510). The crisis does not originate in church regulations. The crisis was fueled by the modernist reforms that Alexandru Ioan Cuza initiated. Actually, the period between the election of the Moldavian colonel Alexandru Ioan Cuza as ruler of both principalities, on January 5, 1859 in Moldova and on January 24, 1859 in Wallachia and the moment on February 11, 1866, when Cuza is forced to abdicate, is a time of extensive civil reforms, which did not bypass the Church and, therefore, monastic life. The regulations of the Cuza regime impose the State as absolute authority regarding the organization of monasticism, especially regarding economic and administrative aspects. The consequences of the regulations from 1859-1866 will affect Romanian monasticism until the 1930s. The main factor that determined such a reaction from the civil authorities during the Cuza period was the historical context, which highlights a series of problems with sometimes legal content, regarding the functions and rights of some Greek monks and hierarchs in Romanian monasteries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Footnotes 1 Viktor Taki, "Between Polizeistaat and Cordon Sanitaire: Epidemics and Police Reform during the Russian Occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia, 1828-1834", I Ab Imperio i 4 (2008): 75-112. Russia on the Danube: Empire, Elites, and Reform in Moldavia and Wallachia, 1812-1834 Russia on the Danube: Empire, Elites, and Reform in Moldavia and Wallachia, 1812-1834. [Extracted from the article]

The Constantinople Academy professors and Patriarchate lay dignitaries, Antonios Spandones, Iakovos Argeios, Antonios Byzantios and his brother Chourmouzios composed elegant epigrams in poetic dialect to praise the ruler of Wallachia Constantine Brâncoveanu (1654‒1714) during his reign (1688‒1714). The aim of this study is to present and analyze this specific group of epigrams found so far, either in print or in manuscripts, since their existence or content, was only partially known to earlier scholars. In particular, their authors, their transmission and content, as well as the characteristics they attribute to the ruler, and also the motives behind their composition are elucidated. The writing of epigrams indicates the close connection existed between him and the Patriarchal Academy: The Wallachian ruler sought to create a circle of Greek intellectuals in Constantinople, who praised him as the Maecenas of Letters, the defender of the Orthodox Church, and the successor of the Byzantine emperors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Since ancient times, interpreters have enjoyed a high reputation due to their ability to mediate between cultures. The wide-ranging knowledge they had to acquire for their profession and during their assignments also helped them to hold political positions. Interpreters were probably held in the highest esteem at the Sublime Porte in Istanbul, where there was a whole team of experts on various matters regarding communication with other countries. The Grand Dragoman was the head of these interpreters and held a very high position in the Ottoman governing apparatus. In time, he led all diplomatic acts of the High Gate and became the most important element in the diplomacy of the Ottoman Empire. From the mid-17th century onwards, the Grand Dragomans were appointed mainly from the ranks of Greek Christians from Istanbul's Phanar district. By virtue of their position and talent, many of them were rewarded with the throne of one of the two Romanian principalities: Wallachia and Moldavia. Known as Phanariots, they and their rulers have been a controversial topic in Romanian historiography, with the negative traits being more the subject of discussion. In contrast, this article takes it upon itself to highlight the positive developments of these dominions, which took place thanks to the respective prince's qualification acquired in Istanbul as a Grand Dragoman. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the post-Byzantine period, the rulers of the north-Danubian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, through their monetary gifts and donations, played central roles in the continuation of religious life within and beyond the borders of their domains. This essay charts the patterns of patronage of two key donors - Neagoe Basarab of Wallachia (r. 1512-1521) and Peter RareÈ™ of Moldavia (r. 1527-1528; 1541-1546) - in order to underscore their piety and the broader implications of their activities. Through the extant textual and material evidence, this study engages with aspects of the desires, collaborations, and effects of patronage from these two important rulers within Wallachia and Moldavia, respectively, and to far-off places like Mount Athos and the monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai. This study reveals a complex web of personal, spiritual, and ideological facets of leadership and identity that shaped a culture of donations and piety rooted in Byzantine models and transformed in local contexts through the desires and ambitions of each individual ruler. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Dürer's Apocalypse was undoubtedly the prototype for the many apocalyptic representations that suddenly appeared in Central Europe by the end of the sixteenth century: the influence of Dürer's Apocalypse extended far beyond the German borders, towards Western, Southern and Eastern countries. The Apocalypse text is extremely rich in symbols so that it could easily be enriched with additional meanings: Cranach's reworking of Dürer's iconographic model in the 1520s, under Luther's personal guidance, became a key instrument of transmission of the Lutheran doctrine and anti-papal criticism. The reception of these prototypes in the Orthodox world followed different routes, as two different works of art can prove, namely, a cycle of frescoes on Mount Athos and a series of Gospel book covers made at the end of the seventeenth century by an unidentified Transylvanian Saxon Lutheran goldsmith. In the latter, the Cranach prototype, which was originally made with the purpose of transmitting the Lutheran doctrine, was brilliantly adapted by the goldsmith to a different context. The comparative analysis of the same scene by Dürer, Cranach and the Transylvanian goldsmith can be useful to show how art could be employed to transmit a religious and political message while adapting it to the specific needs and characteristics of a culturally and religiously different context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1578, the Battle of Iași took place between the Ottoman forces and the Cossacks as a result of the invasion of Iași, the major city of Bogdan (Moldavia), by Alexandru and the Cossacks that he gathered. The composition of Ottoman military forces during this engagement indicates the absence of direct involvement by the imperial army; instead, the regional sancaks and volunteer warriors from the vicinity areas actively participated in the campaign. In this regard, the Battle of Iași has significance in exemplifying the organizational capacity of the Ottoman Empire to mobilize additional forces when needed. This research is grounded on the yoldaşlık defteri (comradeship register) which was prepared by Davud Bey, the Sancakbey of Silistre and the commander of the Ottoman army. The study aims to reveal the issues regarding the sancak soldiers and volunteer warriors in the Ottoman army. In this respect, their identities, military roles in the battles and the dirliks that was granted to them as a recognition for their services will be analysed. In addition, the original information about the battle in the commandership register will be subjected to a comparative analysis alongside other relevant archival documents and literature, with the aim of presenting these findings to the attention of scholars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starting Long Wars which could occupy the state for a long time on the western front and the emergence of the Romanian nationalist Michael the Brave on the same dates changed politic balances in Wallachia turned against Ottoman. Taking advantage of the wars with the Habsburgs, Michael rebelled against Ottomans in Bucharest on 13 November 1594, he turned his direction to the towns and villages along the Danube and he inflicted great damages to the Muslim people living this region. After the danger of security along the Danube, Ottoman authorities decided to produce more permanent solutions in Wallachia. In this context, the Wallachian voivodeship was directly transformed into an Ottoman province and Satırcı Mehmed Pasha was appointed as a governor. Also, ulufe soldiers were appointed to the castles which about to be built in Bucharest and Târgoviste. The task of implementing decision taken by the Porte was given to Ferhad Pasha. As a matter of fact, Ferhad Pasha came to Ruse after providing the ammunition and soldiers etc. necessary for Wallachian campaign. For a while, he supervised the bridge works that would facilitate Ottoman army's crossing to Wallachia and later he was dismissed from his duty due to the pressure of his rivals in Istanbul. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula started after the battle of Kosovopolje (15 June 1389) led to the occupation of Bulgaria in 1393 and to the first raid of the Turks in western Walachia. The voevode Mircea launched an attack against the base of those marauders (Karınovası), in the context of a larger offensive organized by Sigismund of Luxemburg. As punishment, the Ottoman army led by Sultan Bayezid I entered in Walachia in the autumn of 1394. The date of the campaign was subjected to a long controversy, but there is no strong reason to deny the date of 10 October 1394 mentioned by the Serbian annals for the battle usually called "Rovine". The name "Rovine" was not a real placename, but a Serbian noun meaning "cliff" or "ditch", used to describe the features of the battlefield. The location of the battle is too disputed, but it was somewhere on the route from Turnu Măgurele to Curtea de Argeş. The battle was won by Mircea, but a part of his boyars preferred to support the alliance with the Turks. Their chief, Vlad, was perhaps the son of voevode Dan I. Mircea took refuge in his Transylvanian feud, and signed a treaty of alliance with Sigismund of Luxemburg at Braşov (7 March 1395). A Hungarian army entered in Walachia in April 1395 and contributed to the liberation of the fortress Turnu (also known as Little Nicopolis), which was conquered by the Ottomans in the previous campaign. This victory of the armies of Sigismund and Mircea determined a counteroffensive of Bayezid I in May 1395. Sigismund went back to Walachia at the beginning of July to revenge the defeat. The cooperation between Mircea and Sigismund was achieved too late to obtain the defeat of the Ottoman invaders. In the autumn of 1394, Mircea was able to stop the conquest of the entire Walachia, preserving a part of it, despite the treason of Vlad. This partial preservation of power allowed the agreement of 7 March 1395, whose outcome was the expedition of the Hungarian army in April 1395. However, the Ottoman forces remained strong enough to cancel the results of this campaign, in the counteroffensive from May 1395 commanded by Bayezid I against the joined forces of Mircea and Sigismund. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because the alliance between the Cumans and Bulgaria was a danger both for Hungary and the Latin Empire, it was preferable for Hungary to extend its domination over Cumania. The Teutonic knights were settled in south-eastern Transylvania in 1211 to defend it against the Cumans, who, after 1214, became enemies also for Bulgaria. Besides the few fortresses built in the Bârsa land, there is no certain proof for an expansion of the Teutonic Order outside the Carpathians, and by consecquence of the Hungarian kingdom, in the period before the Mongol invasion of 1241. After the departure of the Teutonic knights in 1225, Cumania became the target of the Dominican mission which was present since around 1221 in Terra Severin, a north-Danubian Bulgarian possession. The Cuman bishopric was established in 1227. The subjection of these Cumans made useless the preservation of the Hungarian-Bulgarian alliance closed in 1214, and the consequence was the annexation of Terra Severin by Hungary, sometimes between 1228 and 1232, as a Banat. The final act of the Hungarian expansion in Cumania was the introduction of the title of King of Cumania by Bela IV in 1236. The region where it was established the bishopric of Cumania continued to be under the influence of the Church of Tărnovo, even after the end of the domination of the Bulgarian state in this north-Danubian territory. In 1241, the Cuman bishopric was destroyed by the Mongol invasion. Because the Golden Horde domination did not extend west of Olt in the first years after 1242, Bela IV tried to regain positions by summoning the Hospitaller Knights in 1247. Terra Severin remained a part of the Hungarian kingdom, but the function of Ban was abandoned or suspended. One mission of the Hospitallers was to extend the Hungarian domination in Cumania, in the regions which were then conquered by the Mongols. The Mongol domination prevented the emergence of a Cuman kingdom in Moldavia, vassal of Hungary. Only the decline of the Golden Horde made possible a new penetration of the Hungarian kingdom in the former Cumania, in 1345. The former Cumania entered in the new states created during the 14th century by the Romanians liberated from the Hungarian domination, Wallachia and Moldavia.

This study focuses on the history of the quarantine system established at the naval border of the Romanian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia) between 1830 and 1859. We survey both the state's ability to organise defences against contagious diseases and the society's reaction to strict quarantine rules. In the end, we show that the Danube quarantine was not only a means of combating contagious diseases but also an instrument of pressure, surveillance and state regulation. To reconstruct an image of that period, we used information from five categories of sources: archive documents, health legislation, the press of the time, memoirs and diplomatic reports. By bringing the Romanian quarantine experience to the foreground, this study broadens both the perspective on quarantines and modernisation in the Romanian Principalities and also the knowledge regarding the free movement, politics and economy at the Danube border of the Ottoman Empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article deals with the problems of difficult relations between the Moldavian prince Vasile Lupu and the Zaporozhzhia Army after the start of the War of Liberation in Ukraine under the leadership of Hetman B. Khmelnytskyi against Polish domination. The conclusion of a forced alliance, sealed in 1652 by the marriage of Vasile Lupu’s daughter Ruksandra and B. Khmelnytskyi’s son Tymofii, later led to a political crisis within the principality and confrontation with the rulers of neighboring Wallachia and Transylvania in the international arena. Due to the rebellion of the discontented boyars, led by the great logothete Gheorghe Ștefan, who were supported by the prince of Wallachia Matei Basarab and the prince of Transylvania George II Rákóczi, in the spring of 1653 Vasile Lupu briefly lost power, but soon returned the throne with the help of the Cossacks of hetmanych T. Khmelnytskyi. However, the attempt of the prince of Moldavia to use the armed forces of his son-in-law for a joint campaign to seize the possessions of his rival Matei Basarab ended with the defeat of the Moldavian-Cossack army at Finta in Wallachia and the coming to power in Moldavia of Gheorghe Ștefan, who occupied Iasi and blocked the Suceava fortress, where Vasile Lupu’s wife closed herself. T. Khmelnytskyi again arrived at the head of the Cossack army to help the besieged in Moldova. His appearance near Suceava in August 1653 led to the ruin of this territory. Having made his way to the besieged and having organized a fortified camp with the Cossacks on the floor side of the fortress, the hetmanych found himself in a trap, being finally blocked upon the arrival in Suceava of the fresh forces of voivode Gheorghe Ștefan with contingents of Transylvanians, Wallachians and Poles. The Cossacks, besieged under the castle, were actively defending in the hope of helping the main forces of Hetman B. Khmelnytskyi, and also waiting for the Tatars recruited by Vasile Lupu. However, help did not arrive in time, and hunger, attacks, shelling and the death of T. Khmelnytskyi from a wound forced the Cossack garrison in early October to capitulate with honour to the allied forces, on the terms of free departure to Ukraine with the body of hetmanych. In general, the defence of Suceava in 1653 became the final episode of the Moldavian campaigns of Bohdan and Tymofii Khmelnytskyi (1650, 1653). After the death of his son and the surrender of Suceava, B. Khmelnytskyi lost interest in affairs in the Danube principalities and orientation towards Portа, placing further hopes in the fight against the Commonwealth on Moscow. The Hetman’s matchmaker, the former prince Vasile Lupu, having lost all hope of regaining the throne of Moldavia, ended up in a foreign land, being imprisoned in Istanbul, and the principality of Moldavia, which he involved in an alliance with the Cossacks, remained in the future a territory of military activity of neighbours, experiencing ruin.

The article deals with the problems of difficult relations between the Moldavian prince Vasile Lupu and the Zaporozhzhia Army after the start of the War of Liberation in Ukraine under the leadership of Hetman B. Khmelnytskyi against Polish domination. The conclusion of a forced alliance, sealed in 1652 by the marriage of Vasile Lupu’s daughter Ruksandra and B. Khmelnytskyi’s son Tymofii, later led to a political crisis within the principality and confrontation with the rulers of neighboring Wallachia and Transylvania in the international arena. Due to the rebellion of the discontented boyars, led by the great logothete Gheorghe Ștefan, who were supported by the prince of Wallachia Matei Basarab and the prince of Transylvania George II Rákóczi, in the spring of 1653 Vasile Lupu briefly lost power, but soon returned the throne with the help of the Cossacks of hetmanych T. Khmelnytskyi. However, the attempt of the prince of Moldavia to use the armed forces of his son-in-law for a joint campaign to seize the possessions of his rival Matei Basarab ended with the defeat of the Moldavian-Cossack army at Finta in Wallachia and the coming to power in Moldavia of Gheorghe Ștefan, who occupied Iasi and blocked the Suceava fortress, where Vasile Lupu’s wife closed herself. T. Khmelnytskyi again arrived at the head of the Cossack army to help the besieged in Moldova. His appearance near Suceava in August 1653 led to the ruin of this territory. Having made his way to the besieged and having organized a fortified camp with the Cossacks on the floor side of the fortress, the hetmanych found himself in a trap, being finally blocked upon the arrival in Suceava of the fresh forces of voivode Gheorghe Ștefan with contingents of Transylvanians, Wallachians and Poles. The Cossacks, besieged under the castle, were actively defending in the hope of helping the main forces of Hetman B. Khmelnytskyi, and also waiting for the Tatars recruited by Vasile Lupu. However, help did not arrive in time, and hunger, attacks, shelling and the death of T. Khmelnytskyi from a wound forced the Cossack garrison in early October to capitulate with honour to the allied forces, on the terms of free departure to Ukraine with the body of hetmanych. In general, the defence of Suceava in 1653 became the final episode of the Moldavian campaigns of Bohdan and Tymofii Khmelnytskyi (1650, 1653). After the death of his son and the surrender of Suceava, B. Khmelnytskyi lost interest in affairs in the Danube principalities and orientation towards Portа, placing further hopes in the fight against the Commonwealth on Moscow. The Hetman’s matchmaker, the former prince Vasile Lupu, having lost all hope of regaining the throne of Moldavia, ended up in a foreign land, being imprisoned in Istanbul, and the principality of Moldavia, which he involved in an alliance with the Cossacks, remained in the future a territory of military activity of neighbours, experiencing ruin.

This article explores how the visual culture of Eastern Europe has been studied and often excluded from the grander narratives of art history and more specialized conversations due to political and cultural limitations, as well as bias in the field. The history and visual culture of Eastern Europe have been shaped by contacts with Byzantium, transforming, in local contexts, aspects of the rich legacy of the empire before and after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. This study expands and theorizes the eclectic visual cultures of Eastern Europe during the late medieval period by focusing on two ecclesiastical buildings of the 14th century built under princely and noble patronage in regions of North Macedonia and Wallachia, respectively: the Church of St George at Staro Nagoričane, near Skopje, modern-day North Macedonia (1315–17) and Cozia Monastery in Călimănești, Wallachia, modern-day Romania (founded 1388). The 14th century was a transformative period for the regions to the north and south of the Danube River, establishing the contacts that were to develop further during the 15th century and especially after 1453.

In Wallachia, the first preserved population census was completed in 1838. It contains a detailed portrait of the Gypsy population (over 48,000 people living in 12,280 households), the largest slave population in Europe at the time. In the census, the labour of Gypsy women was largely under-registered. Occupations and skills appear mostly when women are listed as heads of a household, in about 5 percent of all cases. Overwhelmingly, these women were listed as widows, but that category may hide a variety of conditions of the affected women. The analysis of the women registered as breadwinners reveals a diversity of skills, occupations, and labours, many of them restricted to the different Romani groups. A case study of a community of domestic servants belonging to a large estate landowner shows how the life events of young Gypsy females, including migration, intersected with their slave status and their work as domestic servants. This article was published open access under a CC BY licence: https://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]