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During the Holocene, Wallacea saw dramatic sociocultural changes during the Pre-ceramic, Neolithic, Metal-age, and Colonial periods, as well as climatic and associated environmental changes that affected the landscapes and ecologies of islands. These environmental and cultural processes appear to have influenced human socioeconomic adaptations throughout the archipelago. Here, we present new anthropological and archaeological data demonstrating the effects of these processes. Excavations at the cave site of Hatu Saur on the north coast of Timor-Leste have revealed a deep archaeological sequence that dates from ca. 10,500 years until the present. The site contains extensive assemblages of faunal remains, as well as stone artifacts, revealing settlement patterns that were influenced by sea level change and estuarine infilling after 7 ka. The sequence encompasses the beginning of the Neolithic in Timor-Leste, some 3500 years ago, and the period from ca. 700 years ago when outside influences, including Chinese and Makassar traders and Dutch and Portuguese colonization, greatly affected the indigenous culture and economy on the island of Timor, reflected in the material culture remains from Hatu Saur. The archaeological findings complement related anthropological research in the region that highlights unique local mythologies of settlement origins and their contested histories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tropical archipelago of Wallacea was first settled by anatomically modern humans (AMH) by 50 thousand years ago (kya), with descendent populations thought to have remained genetically isolated prior to the arrival of Austronesian seafarers around 3.5 kya. Modern Wallaceans exhibit a longitudinal countergradient of Papuan-and Asian-related ancestries widely considered as evidence for mixing between local populations and Austronesian seafarers, though converging multidisciplinary evidence suggests that the Papuan-related component instead comes primarily from back-migrations from New Guinea. Here, we reconstruct Wallacean population genetic history using more than 250 newly reported genomes from 12 Wallacean and three West Papuan populations and confirm that the vast majority of Papuan-related ancestry in Wallacea (~75 to 100%) comes from prehistoric migrations originating in New Guinea and only a minor fraction is attributable to the founding AMH settlers. Mixing between Papuan and local Wallacean lineages appears to have been confined to the western and central parts of the archipelago and likely occurred contemporaneously with the widespread introduction of genes from Austronesian seafarers--which now comprise between ~40 and 85% of modern Wallacean ancestry--though dating historical admixture events remains challenging due to mixing continuing into the Historical Period. In conjunction with archaeological and linguistic records, our findings point to a dynamic Wallacean population history that was profoundly reshaped by the spread of Papuan genes, languages, and culture in the past 3,500 y. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nightjars of the Caprimulgus macrurus complex are distributed from Pakistan to Australia and comprise six morphologically similar but vocally distinct species. Fieldwork on Timor and Wetar, Lesser Sunda Islands, has resulted in the discovery of a seventh species in the complex, which we describe as a new species. This species has previously been confused with Caprimulgus macrurus, Caprimulgus celebensis and Caprimulgus manillensis but it differs from these and all other species in the complex by at least 13 vocal characters. Discriminant function analysis correctly classified all recordings in the complex to species. Caprimulgus ritae is known from five adult museum specimens, which are the smallest in the complex and which differ from other species in the complex in several morphological characters. A molecular phylogenetic analysis indicated that C. ritae is sister to C. meesi from Flores and Sumba, and that these species together are sister to C. macrurus. C. ritae is a tropical forest specialist occurring from sea level to at least 1500 m (probably mostly below 1000 m). Lowland and montane forests on Timor are threatened. Wetar is one of the least developed islands in Indonesia, and retains >95% natural vegetation, dominated by Eucalyptus woodlands, with tropical forests in river gorges and slopes in upland areas. Pressure for development is accelerating throughout the range of C. ritae, and a detailed assessment of its conservation status is urgently needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wallacea attracts much attention from researchers because it is a meeting point between Asia and Australia with rich biodiversity. Therefore, bioenergy source identification in this region is crucial to better understanding biomass potential and utilization. On the other hand, national bioenergy development usually refers to government policies, including granting permits to use forest land, especially on unproductive land. Thus, balanced utilization of tropical forests as an energy source is required. It must consider several aspects comprehensively, including its function in protecting the surrounding landscape, contributing to food security, and creating economic opportunities for communities around forest areas. This paper addresses biomass utilization in the Wallacea region aligned with Indonesian policy targets for bioenergy generation to achieve the net zero emission target by 2060. The study is carried out by limiting the scope of the area and relying on international databases and the nation's potential targeting biomass research. In addition, the recent development of conversion technologies is adjusted based on available biomass types, including geographic information systems for potential biomass analysis. The analysis and data synchronization are presented in charts, graphs, and tables. In the early section, the potential of biomass in the Wallacea is explained. The following section discusses several scenarios, routes, and utilization technology options for biomass utilization. Various studies that have been conducted are presented in this section, including machine learning adoptions to model and optimize biomass conversion processes. Furthermore, challenges and opportunities are discussed by looking at various factors, such as accessibility, socio-economics, life cycle assessment, and environmental issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coconut farming contributes to the livelihoods of millions of people in tropical countries but is less frequently considered as a threat to biodiversity compared to other palm commodities such as oil palm. The expansion of coconut farming alongside other smallholder agriculture in Sulawesi, Indonesia, is of potential concern as the region is a centre of species endemism. We studied bird diversity and community structure in forests, coconut palm plantations and mixed farmland in Gorontalo Province, northern Sulawesi. Forest and non-forest sites supported similar numbers of species overall, but compared to agricultural areas, forest sites had communities that were more diverse and more even (i.e. different species were present at similar abundances). We found far fewer endemic species in agricultural areas compared to forests, and the communities in palm plantations and mixed farmland sites were dominated by generalist birds, with few indicator taxa. Nevertheless, there was a higher number of endemic species in coconut palm plantations than in mixed farmland sites. These findings mirror patterns of biotic homogenization documented elsewhere in the Wallacea centre of endemism, and imply that coconut palm plantations have comparable biodiversity value to other farmland systems. Increased protection of lowland forests and improved management of coconut farms could be important for supporting the conservation of the endemic birds of Sulawesi in the long term, but this warrants further study.

Sulawesi est la plus grande île du hotspot de biodiversité de Wallacea. Cependant, les données sur l'ichtyofaune de cette île sont incomplètes, et plusieurs espèces connues n'ont pas de barcode ADN de référence dans les bases de données publiques; ceux-ci sont nécessaires, entre autres, pour permettre la détection non-invasive utilisant l'ADN environnemental. Pour contribuer à remédier à ce manque, des spécimens de deux espèces endémiques dans le Sulawesi du sud ont été collectés dans la région karstique de Maros en mars 2023: Dermogenys orientalis et Lagusia micracanthus. Les nageoires pectorales droites ont été conservées dans de l'éthanol à 96% pour le Barcoding de l'ADN avant la conservation de trois spécimens de référence de chaque espèce à l'Université Hasanuddin. L'extraction d'ADN et la PCR (marqueur génétique mitochondrial COI) ont été suivies du séquençage Sanger. L'analyse des données a été réalisée dans MEGA 11. Ces premiers codesbarres ont été déposés dans le GenBank:accessions Dermogenys orientalis OR829330-OR829332 et accessions Lagusia micracanthus OR829336-OR829336. Des arbres phylogénétiques ont été construits avec des séquences homologues obtenues via la routine BLASTn du NCBI GenBank. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Indonesia, the sand crab Albunea symmysta distribution includes Java, Sumatra, and Moluccas. Populations are assumed to be differentiated between western and eastern Indonesia due to the Wallace line; however, no information on the genetic diversity and differentiation of A symmysta in Indonesia is available. This study was conducted to clarify the genetic diversity and differentiation of A. symmysta in Indonesia. During the sampling campaign, A. symmysta specimens were found only in Java and Papua. Genetic analysis based on the 643-bp fragment of the partial COI gene from 32 individuals revealed significant genetic differentiation between the Java and Papua populations (FST = 0.94, p < 0.005). The haplotype connectivity of the five A. symmysta sampling sites revealed a two-clade network. Based on analysis of molecular variance, most of the variation was found among populations (94.21%) rather than within populations (5.79%). Tajima's D and Fu's FS values indicated a population expansion. Overall, the findings support a high level of differentiation between the Java and Papua A. symmysta populations, suggesting the separation of population stocks due to low connectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coconut farming contributes to the livelihoods of millions of people in tropical countries but is less frequently considered as a threat to biodiversity compared to other palm commodities such as oil palm. The expansion of coconut farming alongside other smallholder agriculture in Sulawesi, Indonesia, is of potential concern as the region is a centre of species endemism. We studied bird diversity and community structure in forests, coconut palm plantations and mixed farmland in Gorontalo Province, northern Sulawesi. Forest and non-forest sites supported similar numbers of species overall, but compared to agricultural areas, forest sites had communities that were more diverse and more even (i.e. different species were present at similar abundances). We found far fewer endemic species in agricultural areas compared to forests, and the communities in palm plantations and mixed farmland sites were dominated by generalist birds, with few indicator taxa. Nevertheless, there was a higher number of endemic species in coconut palm plantations than in mixed farmland sites. These findings mirror patterns of biotic homogenization documented elsewhere in the Wallacea centre of endemism, and imply that coconut palm plantations have comparable biodiversity value to other farmland systems. Increased protection of lowland forests and improved management of coconut farms could be important for supporting the conservation of the endemic birds of Sulawesi in the long term, but this warrants further study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Indo-Australian Archipelago (IAA) is a geologically dynamic area of high biotic endemism that spans the continental shelves of Sunda and Sahul and intervening oceanic islands. We provide a comprehensive quantitative assessment of how bird communities are structured across the IAA using beta diversity indices. We focus on three key questions. Are the islands of Wallacea a biogeographically cohesive unit or a more heterogeneous transition zone? Is the rich biota of New Guinea and the East Melanesian islands most closely linked to that of Sunda, Sahul or Wallacea? What are the geographic and environmental correlates of biotic structuring across the region and how does this compare with determinants of plant diversity? We measure the dissimilarity of bird species composition between eleven major areas within the IAA using a new compilation of distribution data and calculate taxonomic beta diversity at species, genera, and family levels. To compare with recent analyses of plants, we analysed potential correlates of turnover, focusing on geographic proximity, sea barriers, land area, and climatic variation. We also used connectivity analyses to estimate the minimum number of connection events needed to explain the current distribution of shared taxa. We found that islands recently connected by land have lower beta diversity than oceanic islands. Additionally, avifaunas on the islands of Wallacea have little biotic cohesion, reflecting their complex geological history. The avifaunas of New Guinea and the Eastern Melanesian islands are very distinctive. Where New Guinea birds are most similar to Australia, East Melanesian birds are more similar to either Sahul or Wallacea, depending on taxonomic level. Isolation through space and time had the strongest influence on avifaunal turnover at all taxonomic scales, in contrast to plants for which climatic variation was the strongest predictor. Further analyses incorporating phylogeny, biome, trait, and biotic interaction data are needed to investigate the processes that have caused biotic turnover across this fascinating biogeographic region.

Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding has the potential to revolutionize conservation planning by providing spatially and taxonomically comprehensive data on biodiversity and ecosystem conditions, but its utility to inform the design of protected areas remains untested. Here, we quantify whether and how identifying conservation priority areas within coral reef ecosystems differs when biodiversity information is collected via eDNA analyses or traditional visual census records. We focus on 147 coral reefs in Indonesia's hyper-diverse Wallacea region and show large discrepancies in the allocation and spatial design of conservation priority areas when coral reef species were surveyed with underwater visual techniques (fishes, corals, and algae) or eDNA metabarcoding (eukaryotes and metazoans). Specifically, incidental protection occurred for 55% of eDNA species when targets were set for species detected by visual surveys and 71% vice versa. This finding is supported by generally low overlap in detection between visual census and eDNA methods at species level, with more overlap at higher taxonomic ranks. Incomplete taxonomic reference databases for the highly diverse Wallacea reefs, and the complementary detection of species by the two methods, underscore the current need to combine different biodiversity data sources to maximize species representation in conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractSea urchins are consumed in many parts of the world today. Human consumption of these marine invertebrates can be traced back to at least the Late Pleistocene in various archaeological sites from Island Southeast Asia. Makpan Cave, on Alor Island in Indonesia, is one of the earliest Wallacean prehistoric sites with an occupation record beginning ∼43,000 years ago. Coastal resources (i.e., shellfish, barnacle, crab, and sea urchin) play a dominant role in the subsistence strategy at this site, with urchins important throughout all occupation phases. In this study, we used three different quantification methods (weight, NISP, and MNI) to analyze the over 13 kg of sea urchin remains recovered from Makpan. Our analysis showed that sea urchins were collected during the initial occupation period, when other coastal resources were sparsely utilized. This indicates that sea urchins were intentionally targeted rather than being the result of subsidiary foraging during shellfish collection. The quantity and consistency of sea urchin exploitation at Makpan indicates that urchin was considered a staple food, especially during the initial phase of occupation. We hypothesize that a focus on sea urchins may have been a key strategy for the colonization of novel environments by the earliest human settlers in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The general dynamic model (GDM) of oceanic island biogeography views oceanic islands predominantly as sinks rather than sources of dispersing lineages. To test this, we conducted a biogeographic analysis of a highly successful insular plant taxon, Cyrtandra, and inferred the directionality of dispersal and founder events throughout the four biogeographical units of the Indo‐Australian Archipelago (IAA), namely Sunda, Wallacea, Philippines, and Sahul. Sunda was recovered as the major source area, followed by Wallacea, a system of oceanic islands. The relatively high number of events originating from Wallacea is attributed to its central location in the IAA and its complex geological history selecting for increased dispersibility. We also tested if diversification dynamics in Cyrtandra follow predictions of adaptive radiation, which is the dominant process as per the GDM. Diversification dynamics of dispersing lineages of Cyrtandra in the Southeast Asian grade showed early bursts followed by a plateau, which is consistent with adaptive radiation. We did not detect signals of diversity‐dependent diversification, and this is attributed to Southeast Asian cyrtandras occupying various niche spaces, evident by their wide morphological range in habit and floral characters. The Pacific clade, which arrived at the immaturity phase of the Pacific Islands, showed diversification dynamics predicted by the island immaturity speciation pulse model (IISP), wherein rates increase exponentially, and their morphological range is controlled by the least action effect favoring woodiness and fleshy fruits. Our study provides a first step toward a framework for investigating diversification dynamics as predicted by the GDM in highly successful insular taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Excerpt] The richness of life is not distributed haphazardly across the globe, but instead exhibits profound, non-random patterns. Numbers of species of insects, trees, and frogs, for example, abound in tropical localities, like in Brazil or the Congo, but not in Siberia or the Yukon. Species uniqueness, or endemism, peaks on large, long-isolated islands, like Madagascar or the Philippines. And different continents often have profoundly different assemblages of organisms. These types of observations regarding major patterns in the distribution of life, and their implied histories, formed the original foundation of the science of biogeography. Among the most important developers of this science was Alfred Russel Wallace, one of the architects of evolutionary biology. One of Wallace’s many fundamental biogeographic insights was the realization that the fauna of the “Malay Archipelago”, extending from the Malay Peninsula to New Guinea, much of which is now encompassed within the modern nation of Indonesia, can be demarcated into zones of marked Asian and Australian character. (This was an insight based on firsthand fieldwork, collecting biological specimens for museums.) These zones of regional influence merge and meld along the island chain, but nevertheless a particularly sharp demarcation runs between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in the north, and Bali and Lombok, in the south. This demarcation is now known as the “Wallace Line” (Wallace, 1869, 1876; Fig. 1), and others later built on these Wallacean insights to identify additional “lines” of biogeographic significance in the archipelago (Fig. 1). … Helgen, Kristofer M., and Rebecca K. Jones. 2023. Wallacean mammalogy and zooarchaeology: remembrances and a renaissance. In Contributions to Mammalogy and Zooarchaeology of Wallacea, ed. K. M. Helgen and R. K. Jones. Records of the Australian Museum 75(5): 623–628.

Four new species of Rattus are described from the Moluccan islands (Maluku) of Indonesia: Rattus taliabuensis and R. feileri, both from the island of Taliabu, and R. halmaheraensis and R. obiensis from the islands of Halmahera and Obi, respectively. These descriptions are presented as part of a taxonomic review of Moluccan Rattus based on all known specimens in museum collections worldwide. Morphological characters, molecular systematics, and geographical distributions are documented for each of these species. Using both morpho-anatomical and morphometric approaches, we found that the Maluku Islands support Rattus taxa with spiny fur and two distinct morphotypes (1) species with a long tail and short rostrum (R. morotaiensis, R. halmaheraensis, R. obiensis, R. feileri) and (2) species with a short tail and long rostrum (R. taliabuensis, R. feliceus, R. ceramicus, R. elaphinus). Most of the new Moluccan species belong to a clade that includes members of the R. xanthurus species group from Sulawesi and the Australo-Papuan Rattus lineages. Their phylogenetic relationships highlight the role of Wallacea as an important area for diversification of Rattus into the Australo-Papuan region. Finally, the morphologically distinctive taxon Nesoromys ceramicus from Seram was found to be sister species to R. feliceus, and we relegate Nesoromys into the synonymy of the genus Rattus. The close affinities between R. ceramicus and R. feliceus may be an example of in situ island speciation, which has not been observed for small mammals on other Maluku Islands. Fabre, Pierre-Henri, Roberto Portela Miguez, Mary Ellen Holden, Yuli S. Fitriana, Gono Semiadi, Guy G. Musser, and Kristofer M. Helgen. 2023. Review of Moluccan Rattus (Rodentia: Muridae) with description of four new species. In Contributions to Mammalogy and Zooarchaeology of Wallacea, ed. K. M. Helgen and R. K. Jones. Records of the Australian Museum 75(5): 673–718.

Two new species of murine rodents (Halmaheramys funderus sp. nov. and H. bellwoodi sp. nov.) are described from remains in an archaeological site on Morotai Island in North Maluku (Maluku Utara) Province of Indonesia. Both species are approximately the same size, (about the size of a Norway or brown rat, Rattus norvegicus) but they differ from each other in the degree of elongation of the snout and in molar size relative to osseous structures. These morphological contrasts are suggestive of dietary differences. Both species survived into the Holocene, and because the modern mammal fauna of Morotai is very little studied, it is possible that these species may still be extant on the island. Recognition of these taxa helps to demonstrate the distinctive nature of the Morotai murine fauna, which has unique species of Rattus and Halmaheramys compared to Halmahera-Bacan on one hand, and to Obi-Bisa on the other. The subfossil record (and modern fauna) of Morotai also lacks other Australo-Papuan genera that characterize other North Moluccan islands, such as Hydromys and Uromys (known from Obi) and Melomys (known from Halmahera and Obi-Bisa). Aplin, Kenneth P., Tim F. Flannery, Boeadi, Pierre-Henri Fabre, and Kristofer M. Helgen. 2023. Two new species of Halmaheramys (Murinae: Rattini) from archaeological deposits on Morotai Island, North Moluccas, Indonesia. In Contributions to Mammalogy and Zooarchaeology of Wallacea, ed. K. M. Helgen and R. K. Jones. Records of the Australian Museum 75(5): 719–739.

The island monarch (Monarcha cinerascens) was an original example of the “supertramp strategy”. This involves well-developed dispersal specialisation, enabling a species to colonise remote islands but leaving it competitively inferior. Supertramps are hypothesised to be excluded from larger islands by superior competitors. It is the only original Melanesian supertramp to occur in Wallacea, home also to the sedentary pale-blue monarch (Hypothymis puella). We interrogate the supertramp strategy and its biogeographical underpinnings by assessing the population structure of these two monarchs. We sampled island and pale-blue monarchs in Wallacea, collecting DNA and morphological data. We investigated monarch population structure by applying ABGD and Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood methods to their ND2 and ND3 genes. We constructed linear models to investigate the relationships between genetic divergence, dispersal ability, and island area, elevation, and isolation. Wallacea’s deep waters restrict gene flow even in a supertramp, as the Wallacean and Melanesian island monarchs are likely separate species (mean genetic distance: 2.7%). This mirrors the split of the pale-blue monarch from Asia’s black-naped monarch (Hypothymis azurea). We found further population structure within Wallacean and Melanesian island monarch populations. Their genetic divergence was related to elevation, area, and isolation of islands, as well as dispersal ability of birds. However, dispersal ability was independent of island elevation and area. Rather than being r-selected on small, disturbance-prone islands, our results support the view that the island monarch’s supertramp lifestyle is a temporary stage of the taxon cycle, i.e. supertramps may transition into resident species after colonisation. Our models suggest that more dispersive monarchs reach more distant islands, and divergence is promoted on islands that are more distant or larger or more permanent, without selection against dispersal ability per se. We suggest that supertramp lifestyle helps determine the distribution of species across islands, not necessarily the divergence occurring thereafter.

The Lesser Sunda Archipelago is one of the world's most tectonically complex regions and hosts a unique assemblage of amphibian species. Paddy frogs (genus Fejervarya) occur throughout the region, but the systematic position and distribution of each constituent species remains unclear. We present a set of comprehensive mtDNA and morphometric data on the three paddy frog species in the Lesser Sundas: F. cancrivora, F. iskandari and F. verruculosa. We clarify the phylogenetic position of F. verruculosa, placing it as the sister species of F. cancrivora. We also confirm that F. iskandari occur in the Lesser Sundas. Molecular data suggests that F. cancrivora is panmictic across Java and the Sunda Arc, while F. verruculosa and F. iskandari comprise multiple highly divergent populations within the Lesser Sundas. Phylogeographic results appear to support at least two natural colonisations of Fejervarya in the Lesser Sunda Archipelago, one by F. iskandari and one by F. verruculosa, whereas contemporary F. cancrivora populations likely arose from humanmediated movement. Our results demonstrate the biogeographic complexity of the Lesser Sunda Archipelago and identify key knowledge gaps in Lesser Sunda Fejervarya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Skinks comprise the dominant component of the terrestrial vertebrate fauna in Oceania, New Guinea, and Eastern Wallacea (ONGEW). However, knowledge of their diversity is incomplete, and their conservation needs are poorly understood. Aims: To explore the diversity and threat status of the skinks of ONGEW and identify knowledge gaps and conservation needs. Methods: We compiled a list of all skink species occurring in the region and their threat categories designated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. We used available genetic sequences deposited in the National Center for Biotechnology Information's GenBank to generate a phylogeny of the region's skinks. We then assessed their diversity within geographical sub-divisions and compared to other reptile taxa in the region. Key results: Approximately 300 species of skinks occur in ONGEW, making it the second largest global hotspot of skink diversity following Australia. Many phylogenetic relationships remain unresolved, and many species and genera are in need of taxonomic revision. One in five species are threatened with extinction, a higher proportion than almost all reptile families in the region. Conclusions: ONGEW contain a large proportion of global skink diversity on <1% of the Earth's landmass. Many are endemic and face risks such as habitat loss and invasive predators. Yet, little is known about them, and many species require taxonomic revision and threat level re-assessment. Implications. The skinks of ONGEW are a diverse yet underexplored group of terrestrial vertebrates, with many species likely facing extreme risks in the near future. Further research is needed to understand the threats they face and how to protect them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human body size varies significantly around the world, both between and within populations. Likewise, ethnic diversity has a significant effect on anthropometric data differences for the Naulu, Tana Ai, Bugis and Rampasasa tribes, in Wallacea, East Indonesia. Six body dimensions were collected from 484 people, 219 males and 265 females in the age from 18 to 80 years. The statistical analysis included tabulating the means and standard deviations for the various body dimensions and proportions. A one-way ANOVA with post hoc LSD test was performed to determine significant differences between the means of anthropometric dimensions and proportions, as well as within the four ethnic groups. There are significant differences (p

The name Rattus obiensis Fabre, Portela Miguez, Holden, Fitriana, Semiadi, Musser, & Helgen, was recently applied to a newly discovered species of Rattus known to date only from the Moluccan island of Obi in Indonesia. However, this name is preoccupied by Rattus rattus obiensis Sody, 1941, a name applied to a commensal rat and currently recognized as a synonym of Rattus tanezumi Temminck, 1844. A replacement name, Rattus ombirah Fabre et al., 2024. nom. nov., is here proposed for the endemic Rattus of Obi.

The cave site known as Matja Kuru 2 (MK2) in Timor-Leste was first occupied ∼40 kya. Of the caves investigated thus far in Timor-Leste MK2 is unique in being located proximal to a large freshwater lake, Ira Lalaro, providing the opportunity to examine changing occupation dynamics in a lakeside environment from the Late Pleistocene through to the late Holocene. We present the analysis of the Matja Kuru 2 assemblage including the stone, ochre, shell and bone artefacts, and the vertebrate and invertebrate remains. We discuss the challenges posed by cave deposits in tropical Island South East Asia which often preserve little in the way of identifiable stratigraphy. Such caves also present challenges in terms of disentangling what components of the faunal assemblage were deposited as meal refuse by humans, as opposed to by other predators or as a result of natural deaths. We suggest a method for assisting with this taphonomic conundrum.

The Indonesian island of Sulawesi has a unique geology and geography, which have produced an astoundingly diverse and endemic flora and fauna and a fascinating biogeographic history. Much biodiversity research has focused on the regional endemism in the island's Central Core and on its four peninsulas, but the biodiversity of the island's many upland regions is still poorly understood for most taxa, including amphibians and reptiles. Here, we report the first of several planned full-mountain checklists from a series of herpetological surveys of Sulawesi's mountains conducted by our team. In more than 3 weeks of work on Gunung Galang, a 2,254 m peak west of the city of Tolitoli, Sulawesi Tengah Province, on Sulawesi's Northern Peninsula, we recovered nearly fifty species of reptiles and amphibians, more than a dozen of which are either new to science or known but undescribed. The incompleteness of our sampling suggests that many more species remain to be discovered on and around this mountain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wallace's and Lydekker's Lines both describe important biogeographic barriers in the Indo-Australian Archipelago, with Wallace's Line demarcating the boundary of the Greater Sunda Shelf and Lydekker's Line indicating the edge of the Sahul continental shelf. Despite their similarities, Wallace's Line has been much more heavily studied than has Lydekker's Line, yet provides an interesting system for testing the source of fauna into eastern Wallacea. New collections of Northern Water Dragons, Tropicagama temporalis, from several islands in Maluku, eastern Indonesia now allow for an assessment of the phylogeography of the species and the ability to test if New Guinean or Australian populations served as the source for over-water dispersal across Lydekker's Line into Maluku. We collected specimens from remote islands in eastern Indonesia, sequenced the mitochondrial ND2 gene, and aligned the data to previously sequenced specimens on GenBank. We conducted several phylogenetic and divergence time analyses to investigate the source population and timing of dispersal. We found low genetic diversity among the islands in Maluku, and these samples showed little genetic divergence from New Guinea samples. The New Guinea and Maluku populations diverged less than 1 million years ago (Ma) and together diverged from the Australian population between 2.3 and 4.7 Ma. These results, along with patterns in other taxa, illustrated that, despite Australia's close geographic proximity to many of the islands in southeastern Indonesia, New Guinea has been the more frequent source of Wallacean fauna from Sahul.

The islands of Southeast Asia comprise one of the most geologically and biogeographically complex areas in the world and are a centre of exceptional floristic diversity, harbouring 45,000 species of flowering plants. Cyrtandra, with over 800 species of herbs and shrubs, is the largest genus in the family Gesneriaceae and is one of the most emblematic and species-rich genera of the Malesian rainforest understorey. The high number of species and tendency to narrow endemism make Cyrtandra an ideal genus for examining biogeographic patterns. We sampled 128 Cyrtandra taxa from key localities across Southeast Asia to evaluate the geo-temporal patterns and evolutionary dynamics of this clade. One nuclear and four chloroplast regions were used for phylogenetic reconstruction, molecular dating, and ancestral range estimation. Results from the dating analysis suggest that the great diversity of Cyrtandra seen in the Malesian region results from a recent radiation, with most speciation taking place in the last five million years. Borneo was recovered as the most likely ancestral range of the genus, with the current distribution of species resulting from a west to east migration across Malesia that corresponds with island emergence and mountain building. Lastly, our investigation into the biogeographic history of the genus indicates high levels of floristic exchange between the islands on the Sunda shelf and the important role of the Philippines as a stepping stone to Wallacea and New Guinea. These patterns underlie much of the plant diversity in the region and form an emerging paradigm in Southeast Asian plant biogeography.

We describe two new species of Varanus, one each endemic to the Louisiade and Tanimbar Archipelagos in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, respectively. The new species belong to the subgenus Euprepiosaurus and, therein, to the widely distributed and relatively species-rich Varanus indicus group. They can be distinguished from all other recognised species by scalation, colour-pattern and genetic differences. The new species from Tanimbar is most closely related to V. indicus and V. melinus, from which it can be distinguished by its dark blue/grey tongue and higher middorsal and midventral scale counts. The new species from the Louisiades can be distinguished from its phylogenetically and geographically nearest relative, V. chlorostigma, by the presence of dorsal crossbands, the mostly pink tongue mottled with grey, and higher midbody scale count. The Louisiades constitute the easternmost archipelago of Milne Bay Province in eastern Papua New Guinea, and they host a diverse herpetofauna with a high degree of endemism; Varanus louisiadensis sp. nov. increases the known number of herpetofaunal endemics in that archipelago to 60. The Tanimbar Islands are situated in the southern part of Maluku Province (Moluccas), Indonesia, and are a minor centre of vertebrate endemism; Varanus tanimbar sp. nov. increases the number of known herpetofaunal endemics there to six. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The new species Begonia ranoposoensis Saleh, Bandjolu & Ardi (Begoniaceae, Begonia section Petermannia) is described from material collected in Central and South Sulawesi. A detailed description, photoplate, distribution information and a provisional conservation status assessment are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlight Research • The leopard coral grouper Plectropomus leopardus was identified and analysed based on molecular approach. • Genetic diversity within two regions in Gorontalo, Sulawesi successfully performed using connectivity analysis. • Three haplotypes of Plectropomus leopardus from two region in Gorontalo as one of economical important marine fish species. Abstract Bar-cheek coral trout (P. leopardus) is the flagship of the grouper in the live fish market in Asia. Unfortunately, the potential of the grouper is still partly produced from natural catches. Even though hybridisation activities have also started to be carried out, there still have not been many studies on the genetic diversity of these fish. The application of molecular identification has been widely applied in marine aquatic animal species, which are very likely to occur due to errors in terms of shape and colour in the morphological character. DNA information has been beneficial in efforts to the breeding program and develop grouper aquaculture activities. DNA barcoding was used for the molecular identification and haplotype analysis of P. leopardus from two locations in Gorontalo, Sulawesi, Indonesia. A total of 14 fish samples were collected from two traditional fish markets around Kwandang and Sumalata Gulf in the northern part of Gorontalo Province, Sulawesi. This study identified and found three haplotypes from both regions. Molecular identification using Cytochrome c Oxidase subunit I (COI) gene region on mitochondrial DNA. Besides Mega7 for phylogenetic reconstruction, the data analysis using DnaSP6, Arlequin Ver.3.5.2.2, and Network 5.0.1.1. The first Haplotype is a mixed population between the Kwandang Gulf and the Sumalata Gulf, then the Kwandang Gulf haplotype and the Sumalata Gulf haplotype. The genetic distance between Kwandang Gulf haplotype and Sumalata Gulf haplotype is 0.003984, classified as a shallow genetic distance and needs more samples from another region to figure out leopard coral grouper around Indonesia.

The high degree of endemism on Sulawesi has previously been suggested to have vicariant origins, dating back to 40 Ma. Recent studies, however, suggest that much of Sulawesis fauna assembled over the last 15 Myr. Here, we test the hypothesis that more recent uplift of previously submerged portions of land on Sulawesi promoted diversification and that much of its faunal assemblage is much younger than the island itself. To do so, we combined palaeogeographical reconstructions with genetic and morphometric datasets derived from Sulawesis three largest mammals: the babirusa, anoa and Sulawesi warty pig. Our results indicate that although these species most likely colonized the area that is now Sulawesi at different times (14 Ma to 2-3 Ma), they experienced an almost synchronous expansion from the central part of the island. Geological reconstructions indicate that this area was above sea level for most of the last 4 Myr, unlike most parts of the island. We conclude that emergence of land on Sulawesi (approx. 1-2 Myr) may have allowed species to expand synchronously. Altogether, our results indicate that the establishment of the highly endemic faunal assemblage on Sulawesi was driven by geological events over the last few million years.

Background: The freshwater ichthyofauna of Wallacea is diverse and understudied. A baseline survey of Bolano Sau Lake in Parigi Moutong District, Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia in 2019 found an eleotrid goby (local name payangka) with characters conforming to the genus Giuris, long considered monophyletic as G. margaritacea/G. margaritaceus but recently found to comprise at least eight species. This study focused on the molecular (DNA barcoding) identification and phenotypic characters of the payangka. Methods: Payangka samples were collected from August to December 2019 in collaboration with local fishermen, weighed and measured, and preserved in 75% ethanol. Length, weight, sex (n=111) and 17 morphometric characters/six meristic counts (n=42) were recorded. DNA barcoding was performed on a fin clipping preserved in 96% ethanol. Homologous nucleotide sequences were obtained from public (GenBank and BOLD) databases, analysis conducted in MEGA X, and phylogenetic trees edited in the Interactive Tree of Life (iToL). Results: Within the deeply divided Giuris clade, the payangka sequence resolved into a sub-clade identified as Giuris laglaizei (Sauvage 1880), a recently resurrected taxon, based on a sequence provided by Philippe Keith. The length-weight relationship (L = 0.0087∙W3.162) indicated mildly allometric positive growth. Size distribution differed significantly between male and female fish with significantly larger mean size of males (13.56 cm) than females (11.62 cm). The meristic formula was: D VI-I,8 A I,8 P 13 V I,5 C15. Phylogenetic analysis indicated four Giuris species in wetlands around Tomini Bay and five in Sulawesi. Conclusions: This first record of G. laglaizei in Indonesia advances knowledge of Wallacean and Indo-Pacific Gobiiformes biogeography and highlights the need for a revision of the conservation status of the taxa currently grouped under Giuris margaritacea/G. margaritaceus in the IUCN Red List and FishBase databases. The data will inform biodiversity and fisheries management at local and regional levels.

Species distribution data is essential to understand the patterns of biodiversity, determine areas for conservation, and measure the impact of habitat loss and climate change. In this study, we reported a preliminary study about the distribution pattern of a Hippidae family member, Hippa ovalis. A few reports about H. ovalis in Indonesia have been found, but their distribution patterns remain unknown. The samples were collected from 2018 to 2021; 10 specimens were collected from western and eastern Indonesia. The specimens were identified using morphological and molecular (the COI gene) tools. Our samples primarily included H. ovalis. Gene tree and genetic distance were used to determine the distribution pattern of H. ovalis and to analyze its haplotype network. We found seven haplotypes of H. ovalis among our samples, three shared and four unique. Genetic similarity shows that the western and eastern populations have a close relationship, and we hypothesize that no or minimum barrier can be found among the populations. Furthermore, this widespread dispersal of H. ovalis is probably due to pelagic larval duration and ocean current, particularly the Indonesian Through Flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genomic sequence data from worldwide human populations have provided a range of novel insights into our shared ancestry and the historical migrations that have shaped our global genetic diversity. However, a comprehensive understanding of these fundamental questions has been impeded by the lack of inclusion of many Indigenous populations in genomic surveys, including those from the Wallacean archipelago (which comprises islands of present-day Indonesia located east and west of Wallace's and Lydekker's Lines, respectively) and the former continent of Sahul (which once combined New Guinea and Australia during lower sea levels in the Pleistocene). Notably, these regions have been important areas of human evolution throughout the Late Pleistocene, as documented by diverse fossil and archaeological records which attest to the regional presence of multiple hominin species prior to the arrival of anatomically modern human (AMH) migrants. In this review, we collate and discuss key findings from the past decade of population genetic and phylogeographic literature focussed on the hominin history in Wallacea and Sahul. Specifically, we examine the evidence for the timing and direction of the ancient AMH migratory movements and subsequent hominin mixing events, emphasising several novel but consistent results that have important implications for addressing these questions. Finally, we suggest potentially lucrative directions for future genetic research in this key region of human evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dual effects of spatial distance and environment shape archipelagic floras. In Malesia, there are multiple environmental stressors associated with increasing uplands, drought, and metal‐rich ultramafic soils. Here, we examine the contrasting impacts of multifactorial environmental stress and spatial distance upon Lamiaceae species distributions. We used a phylogenetic generalized mixed effects model of species occurrence across Malesia's taxonomic database working group areas from Peninsular Malaysia to New Guinea. Predictor variables were environmental stress, spatial distance between areas and two trait principal component axes responsible for increasing fruit and leaf size and a negative correlation between flower size and plant height. We found that Lamiaceae species with smaller fruits and leaves are more likely to tolerate environmental stress and become widely distributed across megadiverse Malesian islands. How global species distribution and diversification are shaped by multifactorial environmental stress requires further examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bar-cheek coral trout (P. leopardus) is the flagship of the grouper in the live fish market in Asia. Unfortunately, the potential of the grouper is still partly produced from natural catches. Even though hybridisation activities have also started to be carried out, there still have not been many studies on the genetic diversity of these fish. The application of molecular identification has been widely applied in marine aquatic animal species, which are very likely to occur due to errors in terms of shape and colour in the morphological character. DNA information has been beneficial in efforts to the breeding program and develop grouper aquaculture activities. DNA barcoding was used for the molecular identification and haplotype analysis of P. leopardus from two locations in Gorontalo, Sulawesi, Indonesia. A total of 14 fish samples were collected from two traditional fish markets around Kwandang and Sumalata Gulf in the northern part of Gorontalo Province, Sulawesi. This study identified and found three haplotypes from both regions. Molecular identification using Cytochrome c Oxidase subunit I (COI) gene region on mitochondrial DNA. Besides Mega7 for phylogenetic reconstruction, the data analysis using DnaSP6, Arlequin Ver.3.5.2.2, and Network 5.0.1.1. The first Haplotype is a mixed population between the Kwandang Gulf and the Sumalata Gulf, then the Kwandang Gulf haplotype and the Sumalata Gulf haplotype. The genetic distance between Kwandang Gulf haplotype and Sumalata Gulf haplotype is 0.003984, classified as a shallow genetic distance and needs more samples from another region to figure out leopard coral grouper around Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lepidodactylus pantai is a new species of gecko from the Kei Islands, Maluku, Indonesia that is closely associated with intertidal habitats. This species does not fit cleanly into any of the three species groups described for the genus because it possesses the unique combination of both divided terminal scansors on all toes and a nearly completely cylindrical tail without fringes or evidence of dorsoventral compression. A phylogenetic analysis including this species demonstrates that it is the sister taxon of a population from Palau, and that this clade is sister to the clade containing Group III species for which we have molecular data.

Stingless bees are widely distributed in tropical regions including Indonesia, and currently three species of stingless bee have been recorded in the Moluccas. The aims of this study were to explore the species and distribution of stingless bees in the five islands in the Moluccas (Seram, Ambon, Haruku, Saparua, and Nusalaut island) and compare the morphometric variations of stingless bees within and among islands. The samples of stingless bees were identified based on twelve morphological characters, resulting in two species of Tetragonula fuscobalteata (Cameron) and T. sapiens. (Cockerell). T. fuscobalteata found to be a new record in the Moluccas, and showed significantly lower morphometric parameters compared to those of T. sapiens (P < 0.001). Based on non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis, the combination of twelve morphometric parameters between T. fuscobalteata and T. sapiens were significantly different. Almost all morphometric parameters of T. fuscobalteata showed highly varied among islands, except the width of gena of this stingless bees. T. fuscobalteata from Ambon, Haruku, Saparua, and Nusalaut were mostly clustered based on NMDS analysis, while those from Seram show high variations. This study found T. sapiens in three different islands, Seram, Ambon, and Haruku. Width of thorax, mesonotum, and propodeum length of T. sapiens were significantly different among these three islands (P < 0.001). This study has contributed to the new distribution data of T. fuscobalteata and T. sapiens in the Moluccas and showed variation of morphometric parameters of the two stingless bee species among islands in the Moluccas.

Cryptic ecologies, the Wallacean Shortfall of undocumented species' geographical ranges and the Linnaean Shortfall of undescribed diversity, are all major barriers to conservation assessment. When these factors overlap with drivers of extinction risk, such as insular distributions, the number of threatened species in a region or clade may be underestimated, a situation we term 'cryptic extinction risk'. The genus Lepidodactylus is a diverse radiation of insular and arboreal geckos that occurs across the western Pacific. Previous work on Lepidodactylus showed evidence of evolutionary displacement around continental fringes, suggesting an inherent vulnerability to extinction from factors such as competition and predation. We sought to (1) comprehensively review status and threats, (2) estimate the number of undescribed species, and (3) estimate extinction risk in data deficient and candidate species, in Lepidodactylus. From our updated IUCN Red List assessment, 60% of the 58 recognized species are threatened (n = 15) or Data Deficient (n = 21), which is higher than reported for most other lizard groups. Species from the smaller and isolated Pacific islands are of greatest conservation concern, with most either threatened or Data Deficient, and all particularly vulnerable to invasive species. We estimated 32 undescribed candidate species and linear modelling predicted that an additional 18 species, among these and the data deficient species, are threatened with extinction. Focusing efforts to resolve the taxonomy and conservation status of key taxa, especially on small islands in the Pacific, is a high priority for conserving this remarkably diverse, yet poorly understood, lizard fauna. Our data highlight how cryptic ecologies and cryptic diversity combine and lead to significant underestimation of extinction risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic‐driven species extinctions are radically changing the biosphere. Biological communities may become increasingly similar to or dissimilar from one another via the processes of biotic homogenisation or heterogenisation. A key question is how the conversion of native forests to agriculture may influence these processes by driving changes in the occurrence patterns of restricted‐range endemic species versus wide‐ranging generalists. We examined biotic homogenisation and heterogenisation in bird communities on the Southeast Asian islands of Borneo, Sulawesi, Seram, Buru, Talaud and Sangihe. Each island is characterised by high levels of avian endemism and unique spatial configuration of forest conversion to agriculture. Forest conversion to agriculture influenced the patterns of biotic homogenisation on five islands. Bird communities became increasingly dissimilar to forest reference communities relative to localised patterns of deforestation. Turnover led to species with larger global range‐sizes dominating communities at the expense of island endemics and ecological specialists. Within islands, forest conversion did not result in clear changes to β‐diversity, whereas between‐island communities became increasingly similar with greater deforestation, implying that patterns of forest conversion profoundly affect biotic homogenisation. Our findings elucidate how continued conversion of forests is causing the replacement of endemic species by a small cohort of shared ubiquitous species with potentially strong negative consequences for ecosystem functioning and resilience. Halting reorganisation of the biosphere via the loss of range‐restricted species and spread of wide‐ranged generalists will require improved efforts to reduce the impacts of deforestation, particularly in regions with high endemism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maritime migration and island adaptation by anatomically modern humans (AMH) are among the most significant current issues in Southeast Asian archaeology and directly related to their behavioural and technological advancement. In the center of this research hotspot are the Wallacean islands, situated between the Pleistocene landmasses of Sunda and Sahul. Two major migration routes have been suggested for the initial maritime migration from Sunda via Wallacea into Sahul, a northern route into the region of New Guinea and a southern route leading into northern Australia. Here, we report the outcomes of new archaeological research in Central Sulawesi, the most likely entry location for the northern route. Based on our latest findings and new C14 dates from Goa Topogaro 2, we discuss the evidence and timeline for the migration of early modern humans into the Wallacean islands and their adaptation to insular environments during the Late Pleistocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The freshwater ichthyofauna of Wallacea is diverse and understudied. A baseline survey of Bolano Sau Lake in Parigi Moutong District, Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia in 2019 found an eleotrid goby (local name payangka) with characters conforming to the genus Giuris, long considered monophyletic as G. margaritacea/G. margaritaceus but recently found to comprise at least eight species. This study focused on the molecular (DNA barcoding) identification and phenotypic characters of the payangka. Methods: Payangka samples were collected from August to December 2019 in collaboration with local fishermen, weighed and measured, and preserved in 75% ethanol. Length, weight, sex (n=111) and seventeen morphometric characters/six meristic counts (n=42) were recorded. DNA barcoding was performed on a fin clipping preserved in 96% ethanol. Homologous nucleotide sequences were obtained from public (GenBank and BOLD) databases, analysis conducted in MEGA X, and phylogenetic trees edited in the Interactive Tree of Life (iToL). Results: Within the polyphyletic Giuris clade, the payangka sequence resolved into a sub-clade identified as Giuris laglaizei (Sauvage 1880), a recently resurrected taxon, based on a sequence provided by Philippe Keith. The length-weight relationship (L = 0.0087∙W3.162) indicated mildly allometric positive growth. Size distribution differed significantly between male and female fish with significantly larger mean size of males (13.56 cm) than females (11.62 cm). The meristic formula was: D VI-I,8 A I,8 P 13 V I,5 C15. Phylogenic analysis indicated four Giuris species in wetlands around Tomini Bay and five in Sulawesi. Conclusions: This first record of G. laglaizei in Indonesia advances knowledge of Wallacean and Indo-Pacific gobioid biogeography and highlights the need for a revision of the conservation status of the taxa currently grouped under Giuris margaritacea/G. margaritaceus in the IUCN Red List and FishBase databases. The data will inform biodiversity and fisheries management at local and regional levels.

Mangroves are uniquely important ecosystems, for preserving biodiversity, sustaining livelihoods, and mitigating against climate change. However, they are degraded globally and are therefore a priority for ecosystem restoration. To date, the assessment of mangrove restoration outcomes is generally poor, and the limited studies that do exist are focused largely on forest area. Thus, more holistic ways of assessing the outcomes of mangrove restoration projects on biodiversity and associated ecological processes are urgently needed. Ecological networks are a useful tool for simultaneously examining both. Here, we assessed the utility of using species‐interaction networks for evaluating mangrove restoration outcomes for the first time. We compared the structure and complexity of mangrove ecological networks in replicated "monoculture reforestation," "mixed species regeneration" and "reference forest" plots in two study areas in Sulawesi, Indonesia, an estuarine, and a coastal fringe mangrove system. We also combined and evaluated sampling methods, utilizing traditional plant–animal sampling while also integrating video recording data in a novel way. We found significant differences in the structure and complexity of mangrove networks between restored and natural plots, with contrasting effects between the two sites. Our results show differences in the complex ways in which taxa interact in mangrove restoration projects, which would be overlooked if common biodiversity metrics, such as species richness, were used alone, with consequences for the restoration of ecosystem functioning. We also highlight the utility of video recording data collection for constructing species‐interaction networks, overcoming the detrimental impacts of observer presence for some key species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stiphodon surrufus Watson & Kottelat, 1995, with its recent synonym S. birdsong Watson, 1996, is recorded from widely separated locations in the Western Pacific, including Papua and Halmahera in eastern Indonesia. We collected a single specimen of male S. surrufus from the Bohi River, Banggai District, Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia in 2019; this represents the first record of S. surrufus from Sulawesi, the largest island in the Wallacea biodiversity hotspot. Three additional specimens were collected in 2020, one in 2021, and two in 2022, all from the same site. These records expand the known distribution of a naturally rare but widespread sicydiine goby and contribute to the underexplored but increasingly threatened Sulawesian riverine ichthyofauna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on phylogenetic and morphological evidence, we describe a new species of Cyrtodactylus from Obi Island in the northern Moluccas, Indonesia. The new species is genetically and morphologically allied to the Melanesian species Cyrtodactylus papuensis but is distinguished by its larger body size, fewer midbody scale rows, deep precloacal groove in males, and enlarged nonpored femoral scales and pored precloacal scales arranged in a continuous series. The new species is also genetically divergent from C. papuensis (p-distances of 19.0%–20.1% in the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 gene). Four species of Cyrtodactylus are now known from the northern Moluccas, but it is likely additional species remain unrecognized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apis cerana has a wide distribution in Asia, including Sundaland, and is currently found in Wallacea, while the sister species, A. nigrocincta, is native in Sulawesi. The wide geographic distribution and the island isolation led to form morphological differences in the bees. The morph and wing venations are known to have a high genetic inheritance. Therefore, this research aimed to (1) analyze the landmark variation of wing venations of A. cerana from Sundaland and Wallacea, and A. nigrocincta from Sulawesi, (2) determine the relationship between these two bee species. The research was conducted by digitizing 550 wing venations based on nineteen landmarks. Our study on intraspecies showed that A. cerana Sumatra revealed a high variation in bending energy. Overall, the deformation grid of A. cerana from Sundaland has higher displacement than those from Wallacea, meaning higher variations of the Sundaland A. cerana. We found geometric morphometric markers of landmarks 16 and 17 in intraspecies and interspecies bees. Thus, these landmarks known as a cubital index can be used for species identification. The differentiation of interspecies has been shown in the PCA. Apis nigrocincta was separated from the single group of the centroid A. cerana and was supported by the Neighbor-Joining tree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gekkonid genus Cyrtodactylus is the third largest vertebrate genus on the planet with well over 300 species that range across at least eight biogeographic regions from South Asia to Melanesia. The ecological and morphological plasticity within the genus, has contributed to its ability to disperse across ephemeral seaways, river systems, basins, land bridges, and mountain ranges--followed by in situ diversification within specific geographic areas. Ancestral ranges were reconstructed on a mitochondrial phylogeny with 346 described and undescribed species from which it was inferred that Cyrtodactylus evolved in a proto-Himalaya region during the early Eocene. From there, it dispersed to what is currently Indoburma and Indochina during the mid-Eocene--the latter becoming the first major center of origin for the remainder of the genus that seeded dispersals to the Indian subcontinent, Papua, and Sundaland. Sundaland became a second major center of radiation during the Oligocene and gave rise to a large number of species that radiated further within Sundaland and dispersed to Wallacea, the Philippines, and back to Indochina. One Papuan lineage dispersed west to recolonize and radiate in Sundaland. Currently, Indochina and Sundaland still harbor the vast majority of species of Cyrtodactylus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]