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Following the accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in 1986, the United Kingdom Government imposed restrictions on the consumption of sheep meat that became contaminated by nuclear fallout to ensure it was extremely unlikely that any consumers would receive an unacceptable dose. The international context for the restrictions is summarized and a brief review of the strategies employed by the UK is presented. An analysis using the J-value framework, including the de minimis quantum of life expectancy, is made of the cost effectiveness of the sheep meat restrictions in force until 2012, in terms of 4 categories of consumer ranging from the average to the extreme. The paper shows that the risk to the general population was very low indeed at the time the restrictions were removed in 2012. Retaining the restrictions for an extra year, would have averted the dose to the average consumer by a fraction of a microSievert, corresponding to a gain in life expectancy of 8 s. Meanwhile for the ICRP Representative Person, the gain in life expectancy from retaining the restrictions for an extra year ranged between 17 and 25 s. These gains are nugatory, as they are a factor of between 8 and 23 below the de minimis quantum of life expectancy. This new measure provides a meaningful quantitative criterion for judging when the radiation exposure of a large population is trivial in the sense used by the ICRP. The gains in life expectancy for the Field Representative Person and the Extreme Consumer were above the trivial level, but the associated J-values were 10 and 40, an order of magnitude or more above the value of unity where a case could be made for retaining the restrictions for another year. The high J-values and/or de minimis life expectancy ratios suggest that the food restrictions could almost certainly have been ended earlier. Also discussed are: the choice of the Representative Person, the role of intervention levels, the extent to which conservatisms in analysis are warranted and how socio-political factors in decision making can be taken into account in a transparent way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The J-value is an objective method for determining when life extending measures are sen- sible, applicable to both manufacturing and service industries, including public health and healthcare. A model of human decision making based on the J-value is able to explain the shape of the Preston curve that relates life expectancy at birth and gross domestic product (GDP) per head for all the nations in the world. Making a number of reasonable assumptions, a J-value model produces a population-average life expectancy, which may be translated easily into a corresponding life expectancy at birth when life expectancy is not modified by discounting (net discount rate equals zero). The resultant values may be tested against pan-national data, showing a very good match. Thus the shape of the Preston curve has been explained and, at the same time, validation has been provided for the J-value model. A perturbation analysis shows th a t the J-value explanation for the Preston curve starts to break down as the net discount rate is increased above zero. Thus the Preston curve may be seen to validate the J-value model at a net discount rate of zero, but not at higher net discount rates. The result allows a closed-form expression to be derived for the first time for the pure time discount rate, namely the product of the rate of economic growth and the complement of risk-aversion. A further conclusion from the work is that no discernable limit is apparent before the age of 100 to the process by which people live longer as they get richer; such an intrinsic limit might be overcome by future improved medical technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Actions set in train shortly after the accidents at Chernobyl (1986), and Fukushima Daiichi (2011) had the aim of reducing the more immediate health effects on people living near the plants, with population relocation being especially prominent. The important topic of relocation is the subject of a companion paper, and this article will concentrate on other measures, such as soil treatment and urban decontamination, that have been put in place to reduce the radiation risks in the medium and long term to people living and farming in areas subject to some degree of radioactive contamination. The J-value method of risk assessment has been used to judge the cost-effectiveness of a range of agricultural and urban remediation actions. Many remedial measures instituted after the Chernobyl and Fukushima Daiichi accidents have been found to be highly cost-effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Utility theory can be used to model the decision process involved in evaluating the cost-effectiveness of systems that protect against a risk to assets. A key variable in the model is the coefficient of relative risk aversion (or simply "risk-aversion") which reflects the decision maker's reluctance to invest in such safety systems. This reluctance to invest is the scaled difference in expected utility before and after installing the safety system and has a minimum at some given value of risk-aversion known as the "permission point", and it has been argued that decisions to sanction safety systems would be made at this point. As the cost of implementing a safety system increases, this difference in utility will diminish. At some point, the "point of indiscriminate decision", the decision maker will not be able to discern any benefit from installing the safety system. This point is used to calculate the maximum reasonable cost of a proposed safety system. The value of the utility difference at which the decision maker is unable to discern any difference is called the "discrimination limit". By considering the full range of accident probabilities, costs of the safety system and potential loss of assets, an average risk-aversion can be calculated from the model. This paper presents the numerical and computational techniques employed in performing these calculations. T, vo independent approaches to the calculations have been taken, the first of which is the derivative-based secant method, an extension of the referred derivative method employed in previous papers. The second is the Golden Bisection Method, based on a Golden Section Search algorithm, which was found to be more robust but less efficient than the secant method. The average risk-aversion is a function of several key parameters: the organisation's assets, the probability and maximum cost of an incident, and the discrimination limit. An analysis of the sensitivity of the results to changes in these parameters is presented. An average risk-aversion of 0.8-1.0 is found for a wide range of parameters appropriate to individuals or small companies, while an average risk-aversion of 0.1 is found for large corporations. This reproduces the view that large corporations will be risk neutral until faced with risks that pose a threat to their viability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the clustering of galaxies selected in the 3.6 μm band of the Spitzer Wide-area Infrared Extragalactic (SWIRE) legacy survey. The angular two-point correlation function is calculated for 11 samples with flux limits of S3.6≥ 4–400 μJy, over an 8 deg2 field. The angular clustering strength is measured at >5σ significance at all flux limits, with amplitudes of A= (0.49–29) × 10−3 at 1°, for a power-law model, Aθ−0.8. We estimate the redshift distributions of the samples using phenomological models, simulations and photometric redshifts, and so derive the spatial correlation lengths. We compare our results with the Galaxies In Cosmological Simulations (GalICS) models of galaxy evolution and with parametrized models of clustering evolution. The GalICS simulations are consistent with our angular correlation functions, but fail to match the spatial clustering inferred from the phenomological models or the photometric redshifts. We find that the uncertainties in the redshift distributions of our samples dominate the statistical errors in our estimates of the spatial clustering. At low redshifts (median z≤ 0.5), the comoving correlation length is approximately constant, Mpc, and then decreases with increasing redshift to a value of 2.9 ± 0.3 h−1 Mpc for the faintest sample, for which the median redshift is z∼ 1. We suggest that this trend can be attributed to a decrease in the average galaxy and halo mass in the fainter flux-limited samples, corresponding to changes in the relative numbers of early- and late-type galaxies. However, we cannot rule out strong evolution of the correlation length over . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep spectroscopy of the two Leiden-Berkeley Deep Survey mJy radio galaxies LBDS 53W069 and 53W091 has previously shown them to have old (≥3 Gyr) stellar populations at z ... 1.5. Here we present the results of Hubble Space Telescope (HST) observations with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in F814W and with the Near-Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrograph (NICMOS) in F110W. We find that 53W069 has a de Vaucouleurs r[sup 1/4] profile in both the F814W and F110W data, with a mean effective radius of 0.30 ± 0.06 arcsec (2.7 ± 0.5 kpc). The rest-frame U - B colour gradient is consistent with that of present-day ellipticals, requiring a stellar population of supersolar (3 Z...) metallicity that formed on a very short time-scale at high redshift (z > 5). 53W091 has a regular r[sup 1/4] profile in F110W with an effective radius of 0.32 ± 0.08 arcsec (2.9 ± 0.7 kpc). The F814W profile is more extended and is consistent with the presence of a blue exponential disc that contributes 20 ± 10 per cent of the flux within re. We find a rest-frame U - B colour gradient that is significantly larger than that observed in field ellipticals at z ≤ 1, implying a stellar population of mixed metallicity (1-3 Z...) that formed in a high-redshift rapid burst. We have compared these two LBDS radio galaxies with the Kormendy relations of ten 3CR radio galaxies at z ... 0.8 and a sample of cluster ellipticals at z ... 0.4. The LBDS galaxies follow the Kormendy relation for the more radio-luminous 3CR galaxies, assuming passive evolution of their stellar populations, although they are smaller than the 3CR galaxies whose mean effective radius is 12 kpc. Their sizes and radio luminosities are consistent with scaling relations applied to the 3CR galaxies, in which both radio power and effective radius scale with galaxy mass. Compared with the sample of cluster ellipticals, 53W069 and 53W091 lie well within the scatter of the Kormendy... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine the ways in which confidential matters are dealt with in the context of the relationship between the club doctor (or physiotherapist) and the player as patient in English professional football clubs. Methods: Semistructured tape recorded interviews with 1 2 club doctors, 10 club physiotherapists, and 27 current and former players. A questionnaire was also sent to 90 club doctors; 58 were returned. Results: There is among club doctors and physiotherapists no commonly held code of ethics governing how much and what kind of information about players may properly be passed on to managers; associated with this, there is considerable variation from one club to another in terms of the amount and kind of information passed on to managers. In some clubs, medical staff attempt to operate more or less on the basis of the rules governing confidentialily that apply in general practice, but in other clubs, medical staff are more ready to pass on personal information about players. In some situations, this raises serious ethical questions. Conclusions: Guidelines dealing with confidentiality in practitioner-patient relationships in medical practice have long been available and have recently been restated, specifically in relation to the practice of sports medicine, by the British Olympic Association, the British Medical Association, and the Football Association. This is a welcome first step. However, if the guidelines are to have an impact on practice, detailed consideration needs to be given to ensuring their effective implementation; if this is to be achieved, consideration also needs to be given to identifying those aspects of the culture and organisation of professional football clubs that may hinder the full and effective implementation of those guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the use of spectroscopy and broad-band photometric redshifts on the distribution of Hercules sample of millijansky radio sources. Evolution of luminosity functions; Measurement of the steep-spectrum quasars; Observation of the stellar structure.

Objective--To examine the methods of appointment, experience, and qualifications of club doctors and physiotherapists in professional football. Methods--Semistructured tape recorded interviews with 12 club doctors, 10 club physiotherapists, and 27 current and former players. A questionnaire was also sent to 90 club doctors; 58 were returned. Results--In almost all clubs, methods of appointment of doctors are informal and reflect poor employment practice: posts are rarely advertised and many doctors are appointed on the basis of personal contacts and without interview. Few club doctors had prior experience or qualifications in sports medicine and very few have a written job description. The club doctor is often not consulted about the appointment of the physiotherapist; physiotherapists are usually appointed informally, often without interview, and often by the manager without involving anyone who is qualified in medicine or physiotherapy. Half of all clubs do not have a qualified (chartered) physiotherapist; such unqualified physiotherapists are in a weak position to resist threats to their clinical autonomy, particularly those arising from managers' attempts to influence clinical decisions. Conclusions-Almost all aspects of the appointment of club doctors and physiotherapists need careful re-examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results are presented of an extensive programme of optical and infrared imaging of radio sources in a complete subsample of the Leiden–Berkeley Deep Survey. The LBDS Hercules sample consists of 72 sources observed at 1.4 GHz, with flux densities S[sub 1.4]⩾1.0 mJy, in a 1.2 deg[sup 2] region of Hercules. This sample is almost completely identified in the g, r, i and K bands, with some additional data available at J and H. The magnitude distributions peak at r≃22 mag, K≃16 mag and extend down to r≃26 mag, K≃21 mag. The K-band magnitude distributions for the radio galaxies and quasars are compared with those of other radio surveys. At S[sub 1.4 GHz]≲1 Jy, the K-band distribution does not change significantly with radio flux density. The sources span a broad range of colours, with several being extremely red (r-K≳6). Though small, this is the most optically complete sample of mJy radio sources available at 1.4 GHz, and is ideally suited for studying the evolution of the radio luminosity function out to high redshifts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is considerable evidence to suggest that despite the availability of free medical services under the British National Health Service, there remains a clear social class bias in accessibility to a wide range of health care services. The literature on social class and the use of health services is examined and it is suggested that the greatest inequalities are to be found in the uses of preventive services. In the second half of the paper, some tentative proposals, which might have to reduce existing patterns of inequality, are examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article raises a number of interesting matters. In particular, it does not document the quality of provision of support services available to soccer players; rather it document players' perceptions of the quality of provision. These, of course, are not the same thing. Different groups are likely to have different criteria for assessing quality of provision, and it is quite possible that players may be satisfied with services that an independent expert may consider unsatisfactory. It is particularly relevant to the others' finding that 63% of ex-players expressed satisfaction with the provision of medical services during their playing careers.

Presents a response by I. Waddington and M. Roderick to a letter to the editor about their article "Methods of Appointing and Qualifications of Club Doctors and Physiotherapists in English Professional Football: Some Problems and Issues," in vol. 35, 2001 issue.

We present the largest spectroscopic follow-up performed in SWIRE ELAIS-N1. We were able to determine redshifts for 289 extragalactic sources. The values of spectroscopic redshifts of the latter have been compared with the estimated values from our photometric redshift code with very good agreement between the two for both galaxies and quasars. Six of the quasars are hyperluminous infrared (IR) galaxies all of which are broad-line active galactic nuclei. We have performed emission-line diagnostics for 30 sources using the [O iii]/Hβ, [N ii]/Hα and [S ii]/Hα line ratios in order to classify these 30 sources into star forming, Seyferts, composite and LINER and compare the results to the predictions from our spectral energy distribution template fitting methods and mid-IR selection methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a recent paper, Lehnert & Bremer have photometrically selected a sample of Lyman break galaxies at from a single VLT/FORS2 pointing and spectroscopically confirmed half of them to be at . To study the properties of such galaxies further, we have photometrically selected a similar sample from the Hubble Space Telescope Advanced Camera for Surveys ( HST ACS) images of the Chandra Deep Field-South. This selection results in a sample of 44 sources from . We find that such galaxies are often barely resolved in the ACS images, having half-light radii of 0.1–0.3 arcsec (<2 kpc). They show no difference in spatial clustering from sources selected by , which are generally galaxies of lower redshift. However, their distribution over the field is not uniform and their surface density varies considerably over areas comparable to a single 8-m or HST pointing. A reliable determination of the surface and volume densities of such galaxies requires a sky area considerably larger than the current ACS imaging of this field. No individual Lyman break candidate was detected to a 3σ limit of at 0.5–5 keV by Chandra (a limiting luminosity of below at ). By summing over all positions, we find that the mean source must be undetected at a level at least a factor of 4 times fainter than this. This rules out anything other than a weak active galactic nucleus (AGN) contribution to the emission from these objects; we conclude that luminous AGNs made little contribution to the final stages of re-ionization of the Universe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the optical-to-submillimetre spectral energy distributions (SEDs) for 33 radio and mid-infrared (mid-IR) identified submillimetre galaxies discovered via the SHADES 850-μm SCUBA imaging in the Subaru- XMM Deep Field (SXDF). Optical data for the sources come from the SXDF and mid- and far-IR fluxes from SWIRE. We obtain photometric redshift estimates for our sources using optical and IRAC 3.6- and 4.5-μm fluxes. We then fit SED templates to the longer wavelength data to determine the nature of the far-IR emission that dominates the bolometric luminosity of these sources. The IR template fits are also used to resolve ambiguous identifications and cases of redshift aliasing. The redshift distribution obtained broadly matches previous results for submillimetre sources and on the SHADES SXDF field. Our template fitting finds that active galactic nuclei, while present in about 10 per cent of our sources, do not contribute significantly to their bolometric luminosity. Dust heating by starbursts, with either Arp220 or M82 type SEDs, appears to be responsible for the luminosity in most sources (23/33 are fitted by Arp220 templates, 2/33 by the warmer M82 templates). 8/33 sources, in contrast, are fitted by a cooler cirrus dust template, suggesting that cold dust has a role in some of these highly luminous objects. Three of our sources appear to have multiple identifications or components at the same redshift, but we find no statistical evidence that close associations are common among our SHADES sources. Examination of rest-frame K-band luminosity suggests that ‘downsizing’ is underway in the submillimetre galaxy population, with lower redshift systems lying in lower mass host galaxies. Of our 33 identifications six are found to be of lower reliability but their exclusion would not significantly alter our conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyse the first publicly released deep field of the UK Infrared Deep Sky Survey (UKIDSS) Deep eXtragalactic Survey to identify candidate galaxy overdensities at across ∼1 deg2 in the ELAIS-N1 field. Using and colours, we identify and spectroscopically follow up five candidate structures with Gemini/Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph and confirm that they are all true overdensities with between five and 19 members each. Surprisingly, all five structures lie in a narrow redshift range at , although they are spread across 30 Mpc on the sky. We also find a more distant overdensity at in one of the spectroscopic survey regions. These five overdense regions lying in a narrow redshift range indicate the presence of a supercluster in this field and by comparing with mock cluster catalogues from N-body simulations we discuss the likely properties of this structure. Overall, we show that the properties of this supercluster are similar to the well-studied Shapley and Hercules superclusters at lower redshift. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present details of the discovery of XLSS J022303.0−043622, a cluster of galaxies. This cluster was identified from its X-ray properties and selected as a candidate from its optical/near-infrared (IR) characteristics in the XMM Large-Scale Structure Survey ( XMM-LSS). It is the most distant system discovered in the survey to date. We present ground-based optical and near-IR observations of the system carried out as part of the XMM-LSS survey. The cluster has a bolometric X-ray luminosity of , fainter than most other known X-ray selected clusters. In the optical it has a remarkably compact core, with at least a dozen galaxies inside a 125 kpc radius circle centred on the X-ray position. Most of the galaxies within the core, and those spectroscopically confirmed to be cluster members, have stellar masses similar to those of massive cluster galaxies at low redshift. They have colours comparable to those of galaxies in other clusters, consistent with showing little sign of strong ongoing star formation. The bulk of the star formation within the galaxies appears to have ceased at least 1.5 Gyr before the observed epoch. Our results are consistent with massive cluster galaxies forming at and passively evolving thereafter. We also show that the system is straightforwardly identified in Spitzer/IRAC 3.6- and 4.5-μm data obtained by the Spitzer Wide-area Infrared Extragalactic (SWIRE) survey emphasizing the power and utility of joint XMM and Spitzer searches for the most distant clusters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the rest-frame optical and infrared colours of a complete sample of galaxies from the Spitzer Wide-Area Infrared Extragalactic (SWIRE) Legacy Survey and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). We discuss the optical and infrared colours of our sample and analyse in detail the contribution of dusty star-forming galaxies and active galactic nuclei (AGN) to optically selected red sequence galaxies. We propose that the optical colour and infrared colour of galaxies in our sample are determined primarily by a bulge-to-disc ratio. The colour is found to be sensitive to the bulge-to-disc ratio for disc-dominated galaxies, whereas the colour is more sensitive for bulge-dominated systems. We identify ∼18 per cent (195 sources) of our sample as having red optical colours and infrared excess. Typically, the infrared luminosities of these galaxies are found to be at the high end of star-forming galaxies with blue optical colours. Using emission-line diagnostic diagrams, 78 are found to have an AGN contribution and 117 are identified as star-forming systems. The red colour of the star-forming galaxies could be explained by extinction. However, their high optical luminosities cannot. We conclude that they have a significant bulge component. The number densities of optically red star-forming galaxies are found to correspond to ∼13 per cent of the total number density of our sample. In addition, these systems contribute ∼13 per cent of the total optical luminosity density, and 28 per cent of the total infrared luminosity density of our SWIRE/SDSS sample. These objects may reduce the need for ‘dry mergers’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]