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Infrequently examined archival sources raise the possibility that British press mogul Lord Northcliffe and his country's intelligence agents enabled America's purging of journalistic dissent during World War I. William Maxwell—Northcliffe's representative in the United States and a liaison with a British-funded spying ring—performed a pivotal role in suppressing America's foreign-language press. He displayed a remarkable ability to install himself as the spearhead of the Post Office's wartime monitoring and censorship activities in New York. The information he gathered also served the Department of Justice, the Bureau of Intelligence, the Military Intelligence Section, and the Office of Naval Intelligence. Maxwell later became a key advisor to the Post Office and lobbied to expand his responsibilities to include surveilling all of the country's foreign-language publications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On October 23, 1917, Alex Arch, a Hungarian-born artillery officer from South Bend, Indiana, fired the first American shot of World War I from a muddy gun pit in the French countryside. This article investigates how Arch's action was misreported in the press, and discusses the many forces acting on the recording of this historical event. Fisher and Kuntzman's investigation reveals the problematic collision of a variety of conflicting impulses: a need to protect sensitive military information; the desire to claim bragging rights for this important milestone; the drive to have a sensational story that sells newspapers, and the government's need to share a hero with the American people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inspired by Ben Novick's studies on the response of the Irish advanced nationalist press to the First World War, this paper focuses on a less-explored topic, i.e. the representation of the conflict in the separatist press for Ireland's youth. Combining literary and historical interests, I devote my attention to the editorials and literary contributions published in the pages of the juvenile periodicals during and after the war, to highlight how these papers came to popularise, among the youngsters, a specific reception of the first 'total' conflict. Spy- and war- stories, ballads and aislings took hold of the boys' and girls' imagination: a powerful propagandist instrument, popular literature buttressed a nationalist agenda. At the same time, given the readers' young age, these periodicals aimed to shape what was to become Ireland's public memory of the Great War. In the public sphere of post-war Ireland, many soldiers were treated with disdain or indifference. The First World War and its protagonists were condemned to a period of oblivion, which has lasted until quite recently. Textual attention to the rhetoric and literary strategies adopted by the contributors helps to expose the nuances and shifts in the Irish nationalists' view on war. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focusing on the World War I era, this article examines Harry Chandler’s Los Angeles Times and William Randolph Hearst’s Los Angeles Examiner. It argues that these two rival newspapers urged a particular urban identity for Los Angeles during World War I. If Los Angeles was to become the capital of the American West, the papers demanded that real and rhetorical barriers be constructed to protect the city from a dual Japanese-Mexican menace. While federal officials viewed the border as a line to be maintained, Chandler and Hearst feared it. Los Angeles needed to be a borderlands fortress. After the war, the two newspapers ably transitioned into an editorial style that privileged progress over preparedness. This paper reveals that the contested narrative of progress, based in transnational concerns, was crucial to the city’s early and ultimate development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between April 1917 and November 1918, more than 7 percent of the country’s publications stopped production. The vast majority closed not because of government harassment, but rather the combination of soaring newsprint costs and shrinking advertising accounts. In Chicago, a focal point in the federal war against dissent, newspaper publishers neither feared nor respected Committee on Public Information Chairman George Creel. They were, however, deeply concerned by severe shortages in newsprint and government regulation of paper. Under pressure to make drastic cuts in their consumption of newsprint and to surrender their pages to publicity from multiple governmental propaganda offices, Chicago editors vied to demonstrate their utility to the wartime state. As the war progressed, so did the intensity of anti-German messages in Chicago newspapers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on Western Canadian newspapers during the first world war. Topics discussed include headlines in Canadian newspapers during the war, war enthusiasm and telegraphy and newspapers. Other topics which includes newspapers including "Manitoba Free Press", "The Calgary Daily Herald" and "The Morning Leader" are mentioned.

During World War I, editors of modernist little magazines frequently commented on rising paper costs, yet few studies have evaluated how paper influenced the production, reception, and development of literary modernism. This essay explores several trade journals to recover how the American and British paper industries created unique material and economic conditions. The relatively lower production costs in America partly explains Ezra Pound’s decision to partner with Margaret Anderson and what he considered her “scrappy and unselective” thirty-two-page “rag,” the Little Review. Patronage enabled Pound to help transform the Little Review from a local and politically radical magazine into one that delivered coterie modernism to highbrow, cosmopolitan readers. Although the magazine was produced in New York, the editorial staff alienated its remaining subscribers and expanded circulation abroad thanks to Pound’s suggested material improvements and his transnational distribution list. Photographs of archival issues show the contrast between poor-quality paper used in most of its issues and the expensive material used to produce a deluxe edition that would have stood out in a European print market and appealed to a new type of readership. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editors discuss various reports within the issue on topics including the dynamics of exchange of information during the Great War, the presence of British and American female journalists in war zones, and the role of Italy in the Great War.

In July 1915, Alice Schalek was accredited to the Austro-HungarianKriegspressequartier(War Press Office) as one of a small number of female war correspondents, publishing her war reports and photographs in the prestigious Viennese newspaperNeue Freie Presseand in the illustrated German magazineBerliner Illustrirte Zeitung. Schalek’s writings and photographs were very popular, but also sharply criticized in some quarters for their alleged lack of objectivity and a tendency to glorify the war. Her most prominent critic was the Austrian writer and journalist Karl Kraus, whose negative judgment dominated Schalek’s historical reputation for many decades. Focusing on Schalek’s assignments to the Italian front during 1915–17, this article looks at the working conditions faced by Schalek as a female war reporter and reconstructs the war images she transmitted to the public through her writings, photographs, and lectures. Moreover, it asks in what ways Schalek’s work reflects a female perspective on the war. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article presents information on the Austro-Hungarian Kriegspressequartier military press and propaganda corps in World War I. A graph of the composition of the press corps by sculptors, reporters, and painters including Paul Busson, Siegfried Geyer, and Alexander Roda Roda is offered and information is provided on the mobilization of the press corps for the war effort.

The accepted narrative of British press conduct during the First World War is highly negative. Commentators overwhelmingly agree that newspapers downplayed the horror of life in the trenches and afterwards were found to have published fabricated atrocity stories to encourage hatred of “the Hun” on a grand scale. Scholarly assessment of news coverage of women's involvement in war work is also predominantly negative, highlighting patronising and unrealistic portrayals of munitions workers and others. These narratives, however compelling, ignore sections of newspapers and other current affairs journals devoted to helping readers trying to feed families on restricted budgets with scant food, who were grieving for or caring for sons and husbands, and who were adjusting to bewildering disruptions to family life. The dominant historical narratives ignore the development of a previously unexamined form of “lifestyle” journalism and a genre of vivid features journalism focusing on lives on the “Home Front” and which helped undermine traditional boundaries between the domestic and public realms. This article asks whether “soft” genres of journalism actually better reflected the realities of wartime readers' lives, and better satisfied their need for information than propaganda-driven news pages. Assessing readers' responses to these different genres of journalism helps explain why readers can simultaneously mistrust and also enjoy their news media. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Part of a project to present case studies of newspaper treatment of significant political controversy during the Second World War, this paper considers the reporting and analysis of the western Allies' insistence that Germany must surrender unconditionally. Political and military critics attributed to this policy the power to prolong German resistance and increase the death toll among servicemen and civilians. German opponents of Hitler believed it undermined their cause. Recent scholarship has explored the connections between the demand for Germany's complete capitulation and the origins of the Cold War. This paper analyses a structured sample of newspaper coverage of the policy in Britain and the United States. It describes the controversies that surround it and discerns through qualitative content analysis the extent to which newspapers placed them in the public sphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This historical research builds on the literature of myth, war, and international journalism. It considers the power of myth as propaganda, and how this narrative was constructed using a specific segment of Americans, those who volunteered in France during World War I. Despite American neutrality, young men from mostly elite families volunteered to fight for the Allies. This research considers these men as the press portrayed them in the country they adopted as volunteers, France. Historians have studied these volunteers in fair detail. But no research has considered the presence and propaganda role of these volunteers in the international press. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the August 1917 letter published in the British newspaper "The Morning Post" by the anonymous author known by the nom de plume "Little Mother." The letter was discussed in the autobiography "Goodbye to All That," by Robert Graves, regarding his experiences during World War I. Topics considered include the attitudes towards the war among British civilians and soldiers on the battle lines, propaganda, and anti-war movements.

This article tries to approach the development of the Costa Rican germanophile press during the Great War. The general objective is to analyze the Costa Rican newspapers that showed sympathy for the german cause between 1914 and 1918. The work is focused in the characteristics of the papers, the published propaganda and the relationship with the ally-oriented newspapers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the first year of the First World War two different discourses dominated the Lithuanian public sphere. On the one hand, the advance of the German troops to the East and the demands of Tsarist propaganda promoted the emergence of an image of the war as a new fight against the „Teutonic Order”. The Lithuanian intelligentsia, who hoped that the quick defeat of the German army would guarantee autonomy to Lithuania, gave some support to this narrative as a means of mobilizing citizens. On the other hand, after many of their regular contributors had fled the war operation zones, Lithuanian newspapers had a severe lack of first-hand information. Thus, news and reports by people who had remained within the frontline started to be published in the periodic press. These news items and reports became the source of a second narrative that looked at war operations as a process of disintegration of the economic landscape of the Lithuanian countryside and morality. In the 1920s and 1930s the two narratives melted together in Lithuanians' memories. In people's memories, then, the German occupation of „Ober Ost” was envisaged as a period of captivity which reminded them of the violence of the „Teutonic Order” and which led to the indiscriminate exploitation of Lithuanian resources and lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the summer of 1914 none of the war parties had an intelligence service at their disposal. The information policy of the Chiefs of Staff was chaotic, war censorship generally inconsistent. These weaknesses become even more apparent when society's increased thirst for news and information in general is also taken into account. In Eastern Europe in particular, the front line shifted frequently, further hindering the circulation of the press, and at the same time causing waves of panic and an excessive fear of spies and saboteurs. The curiosity of the civilians exceeded their fear of the war. In the first few months of the war, enemy planes and bombed sites were popular war tourism attractions. The limited access to official news paved the way for stories and rumours which had little to do with reality and which came to enjoy cross-border popularity in the course of the summer and autumn of 1914. One such topos was the myth of cars filled with gold which were ostensibly making their way from France to Russia. From Düsseldorf to Przemyśl and northern Hungary people searched in vain for this non-existent convoy. Further rumours accompanied not only the fighting but also domestic policy in the studied region. This paper uses diaries and memoires, press and archive material, and fiction to analyse the dissemination of news in Eastern Central Europe at the beginning of the Great War. The most important issues in this research include the influence of rumours on the decisions of the armed forces and civilian authorities and the relationship between the various types of information and the acts of violence committed by the military. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes the significance of front line reporting as a propaganda instrument in the Austrian and Russian press at the beginning of the First World War. The focus is on the Eastern Front, initially the most important theatre of war for both states. The manipulative function of the various reports is analysed in the light of war events. Despite the restrictions imposed by censorship and state news policy, journalists still had some scope for interpretation. Nevertheless, the press coverage of both states was very similar in terms of the propagandistic strategies employed. The primary aim was to motivate the population for war and to boost their confidence in victory. The reports in the first months of the war characteristically conveyed the hope that the war would be short. Newspaper reports thus presented the larger battles as decisive conflicts, highlighted the achievements of their own troops and, by concentrating on the successful areas of the front, gave the impression that the war was progressing favourably. Defeats were frequently passed over or presented as strategic withdrawals. The military-strategic appraisals were often accompanied by ideological-moral interpretations, portraying the war as one of liberation or defence. Despite all the attempts to gloss over military setbacks, developments on the war front led to a certain disillusionment, and people gradually began to realise that the war was not going to be as short as hoped. This resulted in a more cautious press coverage of the war fronts; nevertheless, there are numerous examples which show continuity in the propaganda strategies followed in the further course of the war. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been surprisingly little historical research into the role of illustrated reports in the media arena of the First World War, despite the fact that illustrated weekly magazines already played a key role in the shaping of public opinion (and thus of war developments generally). Illustrated reports should not, however, be equated with photo reports; the illustrations were ideologically charged messages formulated by the illustrators, not by the photographers. But one should also be wary of using simple undifferentiated „propaganda” terms to analyse the photo reports. The various illustrated magazines fought fierce battles on both a national (within Germany) and international level, each competing with their own layouts and messages. These, occasionally very creative contributions, should be viewed in terms of their dialogue- and duel-like nature, an effect which cannot be achieved by the usual fixation on selected individual images. In this respect, Germany was a provincial backwater. It is true that at the beginning of the First World War interesting commentaries on mobilisation and the Russian invasion of East Prussia were produced and that these had a mass impact; however, in terms of pointed propagandists formulations, at times already guided by the concepts of public relations, the German picture press had little to counter Anglo-Saxon competition, with the result that, with the invasion of Belgium, Germany had already lost the media war. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Harry Patch (1898–2009) was the last surviving soldier to have fought in the trenches of the Western Front, entering the media spotlight in 1998 when he was approached to contribute to the BBC documentary Veterans. Media coverage of Patch and the cultivation of his totemic status were particularly prodigious in anticipating and marking his death, producing a range of reflections on its historical, social and cultural significance. Focusing on the British popular press, this article examines media coverage of the last decade of Patch’s life. It considers the way in which the Great War is memorialised in the space of public history of the media in terms of the personalisation and sentimentalisation of Patch, exploring how he serves as a synecdoche for the millions of others who fought, how he embodies ideas of generational and social change, and how the iconography of the Great War’s contemporaneous representation works in the space of its memorialisation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article will analyze the emergence of a series of reflections and representations of the role of Argentina in the face of the beginnings of the Great War, using a set of journals from Buenos Aires. Along with different alignments based on the empathy with some disputing countries during the early months of the conflict, it will emerge at the same time and in tension, although in a less emphatic way, a progressive distancing from the European education and the reinforcement of a national identity. Thus, the confusion caused by the outbreak of the war in Europe triggered a series of reflections on the place Argentina had in the world. It caused a gradual adjustment of national identity construction projects which considered some of the countries involved in a large military conflict as civilizational models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ayer: Revista de Historia Contemporánea is the property of Asociacion de Historia Contemporanea and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Tocqueville Review -- La Revue Tocqueville is the property of University of Toronto Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Author-supplied Abstracts.)

The article discusses the factors which hindered journalists and reporters in Great Britain to provide full and accurate coverage of the First World War. It highlights the contributions of the government, the military, and their proprietors to the restriction of war events to the public. It also offers information on the political career of Prime Minister David Lloyd George and his propaganda.

The article discusses attitudes toward World War I in the Partido Socialista de Argentina (Social Party of Argentina). The author focuses on op-eds in the party's newspaper, "La Vanguardia," and on the political and journalistic writings of physician, Socialist theoretician, and party functionary Juan Bautista Justo. Topics mentioned include militarism and pacifism, internationalism and free trade, and the assessment by Argentine Socialists of developments within the Second Socialist International.

The article examines the coverage of the First World War in the mass media in Japan, as well as efforts by the Japanese military and education ministry to study the war. The author suggests that this perspective is a useful contribution to the historiography of World War I even though Japan's direct military engagement in the war remained comparatively marginal. Topics discussed included reporting on the war in Europe by Japanese foreign correspondents and intellectuals, government studies on economic planning and social engineering, and the discussion of the war in school textbooks.

The article discusses the political, socioeconomic, and intellectual influence of the First World War on Latin America. The author suggests that Latin American press coverage of and broader societal debates about the war in Europe led to a significant reconfiguration of Latin American self-perceptions. Issues examined include the question whether Latin American countries should participate in the war or maintain neutrality, the political and social importance of the mass media, and Latin American nationalism.

The article discusses the attitudes of Poles toward the July Crisis of 1914 and the subsequent outbreak of the First World War. The author highlights that Poland was at this time divided between the three belligerent powers of Germany, Austria, and Russia and seeks to elucidate whether Polish public opinion was loyal to these countries or whether they sought to further the cause of Polish nationalism during the war. Issues considered include the broader political implications of the war, the coverage of the crisis and early weeks of the war in the Polish-language press, and religious aspects of the events.

Copyright of Patrimônio e Memória is the property of Centro de Documentacao e Apoio a Pesquisa and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The American reaction to the outbreak of war in Europe in 1914 is always portrayed as one of shock and horror. Yet there has been no systematic study of the subject. This article examines American public at the time from the outbreak of war in August 1914 through the congressional elections of November 1914, through the medium of newspaper and journal writing. The picture that emerges is that the American population, far from being shocked and horrified, was excited and fascinated by the idea of a war in Europe. Moreover, the most widely shared sentiment was one of satisfaction at the economic opportunity presented by the war, as it was seen as being very much in American economic interest. This article also includes the present discussion among political scientists and strategic thinkers about the American public and its reaction to war in general, to provide different models by which to examine American behavior in 1914. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Copyright of Historia y Comunicación Social is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Historia y Comunicación Social is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Historia y Comunicación Social is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Historia y Comunicación Social is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Historia y Comunicación Social is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Historia y Comunicación Social is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Historia y Comunicación Social is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Historia y Comunicación Social is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Historia y Comunicación Social is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Historia y Comunicación Social is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Archibald Reiss reporting on atrocities during World War I in Serbia contributed to the public perception of the role of civilians and the meaning of war crimes. His reports on Austrian and Bulgarian wrong-doings perfectly show the changing interpretation of laws of war from the traditionalist pre-1914 approach and the new vulnerable, yet targeted civilian as a victim and not potential source of rebellion. This article shows how situational aspects and the new industrial war led to a totalization of war and where restraining elements existed. The ethnic cleansing aspect of the Bulgarian case will be analyzed and the case made for its different character in comparison to the Austrian actions in 1914 which lacked a planned exterminatory character. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Although she is best known as the author of the Expressionist drama Machinal, Sophie Treadwell was also a journalist. In 1915, she traveled to France to cover World War I for the San Francisco Bulletin and Harper's Weekly. This paper examines her published and unpublished war correspondence, consisting of articles for the Bulletin framed as letters to "D," a hypothetical friend back home in California, and a Harper's Weekly article emphasizing women's experience. The paper argues that because Treadwell did not focus on soldiers and fighting, but instead looked at daily life in "the big war theatre," her work was an effort to develop a female-centered journalistic voice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the history of the journal "Popular Science Monthly," (PSM), from its launch in 1872 to 2012, with a focus on the publications of the magazine during the period of the First World War. Topics discussed include background on the history of the journal and its focus on the dissemination and popularization of science, the history of the editorial staff and leadership of the journal, including its founder Edward Livingstone Youmans; and changes in the focus and approach of the magazine beginning in 1915.

Nelson Edwards (1887--1954) was among the first newsreel cameramen in American film history. From 1914 he filmed for Hearst International News Service and covered the Mexican Revolution. In 1916 he filmed the Turkish and the German side of the World War. He was also chief cameraman for Fox Newsreel during the year of its birth, and thereafter a longtime stringer for Paramount News. The essay describes Edwards's life and work, as well as some of the background of Hearst's first attempts to get into the newsreel business, based on research in Edwards's personal documents, reports in the press and interviews with his family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the history of British control over the media of Ireland from 1914 until 1919 during the First World War. It notes that Great Britain attempted to limit the access of radical Irish nationalism to the press during the period using a combination of direct and indirect methods, using suppression of news and news censorship with efforts to influence news reporting. Topics considered include the 1914 Defence of the Realms Acts, the Easter Rising of 1916, war and propaganda, the office of the Press Censor, and seditious reporting in newspapers including "Freeman's Journal," "Irish Freedom," and "Irish Worker."

World War I occurred at a pivotal time in the development of journalistic norms and press-military relations. Correspondents accredited to the American Expeditionary Force and the army officers who censored them entered the war in 1917 without clear guidelines on reporters' roles. Early clashes over censorship dissolved after a few months as reporters demonstrated they could be trusted with sensitive information and the army liberalized regulations. Still, correspondents grappled with whether they should report independently about all newsworthy events, regardless of whether they might be perceived as critical, or act as "propagandists" deliberately producing stories to support the war effort. This article, drawing from AEF correspondents'letters in the National Archives, argues that reporters sought to maximize access and minimize censorship in order to report freely stories that would be both accurate and patriotic. Among those who sought propagandistic roles were Westbrook Pegler and Heywood Broun. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents an analysis of the challenges of wartime reporting, and the Spanish press during the First World War. Reference is made to the demands of the readers to receive more and extensive information during wartime; thus there is a significant development in the reporting activities. The author mentions the neutral position of the Spanish government regarding the conflict and the impact of its policies on the press. Several problems faced the press, such as the difficulty to find reliable sources, the limitations to the freedom of press imposed by the government to preserve their neutrality, and the economic consequences of the war which affected all sectors of the country.