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At 50.9 percent, female labor force participation in Indonesia is far below the regional average of 60.8 percent. Is it being hindered by a lack of affordable childcare services in the country? This paper exploits the joint variations in preschool age eligibility and access to preschool across regions and over years in a difference-in-difference-in-differences framework. With a longitudinal survey that tracks individuals for an average of 22 years, a panel of mothers was constructed to estimate the elasticity of maternal employment to preschool access. The analysis finds that an additional public preschool per 1,000 children increases the work participation of mothers of preschool age eligible children by 11-16 percent from the baseline mean. Private preschools do not increase work participation at the extensive margin, but they increase the likelihood of holding a second job. The availability of preschools induces mothers to informal sector occupations that do not require full-time commitments.

Ethiopia has experienced remarkable economic success in recent years. In the past decade, its average annual growth rate far exceeded the regional average, at slightly over 10 percent relative to a regional 5 percent. Despite significant economic growth, however, women continue to face significant barriers in the workforce. The unmet potential of women in the workforce is intrinsically linked to a lack of opportunities for women in education, health, and human rights. This report presents evidence on the mechanisms underlying gender gaps in the Ethiopian workforce. Using data from the 2011-2016 Ethiopia socioeconomic surveys, this report provides a detailed understanding of the constraints faced by female farmers, entrepreneurs, and employees. To that end, the diagnostic makes four key contributions: first, this report provides an overview of the labor force in Ethiopia and identifies the factors that predict whether, how much, and in what sector an individual works. Second, this report uses Oaxaca-blinder decompositions to measure and account for gender gaps in economic outcomes in agriculture, self-employment, and wage labor. Third, this report identifies the links between labor market skills, social norms, and gender gaps in the Ethiopian workforce. Fourth it provides policy makers with a menu of innovative programming examples.

The purpose of this report is to present the findings from a study on the Economic Empowerment of Women through Resilient Agriculture Supply Chains: A Geospatial and temporal Analysis in Southwestern Bangladesh. Recognizing that a common weakness in transport corridors has been the lack of participation and limited benefits accruing to the communities through which a corridor passes, World Bank investments in transport infrastructure are increasingly complemented by activities that facilitate the competitiveness of micro and small enterprises and economic opportunities for women and other disadvantaged people and integrate gender-responsiveness into trade facilitation and logistics initiatives. This geospatial and temporal value chain analysis in southwestern Bangladesh adopts a five-step methodology which overlays economic and initial enterprise analysis along this transport corridor, analyzes human capital (with particular focus on women) and the labor force along transport corridors, considers risk management in the value chain analysis, evaluates the economic structure of a value chain, and restructures the opportunities and gaps in areas where agglomerated economic activities were identified. The report includes a total of four components: chapter one, Identification and characterization of agricultural products that are representative of women driven, small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs). Chapter two, a geographical diagnosis of the population’s sociodemographic and infrastructure conditions, and identification of constraints and opportunities regarding women-driven SMEs. Chapter three, value chain analysis for three agriculture products (fisheries, floriculture, and dairy) selected from chapter one. Analyses are represented in two formats: a) diagrams, and b) visualizations of spatial distribution. Chapter four, economic agglomeration and barriers for women-driven SME participation.

Off-farm income constitutes a significant share of the household livelihood portfolios across Sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, the determinants and dynamics of individuals' participation in off-farm employment activities have not received adequate attention due to the weaknesses in individual-level data collection and the lack of longitudinal studies. This paper uses national panel household survey data from Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda; provides empirical evidence on individual-level off-farm (wage and self) employment participation rates; analyzes the extent and drivers of entry into off-farm employment and continued employment; and conducts the analysis by gender and rural/urban location. A significant share of the rural and urban working-age individual population is found to participate in off-farm employment, ranging at the national level from 34 percent in Ethiopia to 58 percent in Malawi. Men participate in wage and self-employment to a significantly greater extent compared with women across time as well as within and across countries, apart from women's participation in non-farm enterprises being more common in Nigeria and Tanzania. The population weighted cross-country gender difference in off-farm employment stands at 9 percentage points, but this has declined over time in most countries. A substantial share of the population, amounting to about 39 million individuals across the five countries, is estimated to have entered and exited employment between 2010 and 2016, pointing to the dynamic nature of off-farm employment. Drivers of entry into off-farm employment and continued employment are country- and gender-specific, with demographic factors, occurrence of shocks, and job characteristics emerging as the most important determinants.

Gender equality is a core development objective in its own right, and it is also smart economics. Greater gender equality pays off by helping advance a host of development goals, such as improvements in children's health and education and better labor outcomes for adults, at the same time boosting overall economic growth (Morrison, Raju, and Sinha 2007 and World Bank 2011).For example, gender gaps in the Romanian labor market may be harming aggregate productivity due to inefficient use of female potential. These gaps are estimated to potentially lower gross income per capita by 11.53 percent in the short run and 12.63 percent in the long run (Cuberes and Teignier 2016).

The objective of this study is to examine the linkages between migration and women’s work and empowerment in agriculture in Nepal and Senegal. In particular, this analysis seeks to understand: (i) how outmigration influences women’s work in agriculture; (ii) the consequences of male-dominated migration on gender roles and women’s empowerment; and (iii) whether and how outmigration impacts household food security.

As compared to the majority of countries in the East Asia and Pacific Region, gender disparities in Mongolia are relatively muted. At the same time, a number of important gender disparities do exist. In particular, several studies have documented gender disparities in access to economic opportunities, earnings, and productivity. Such gender disparities in the labor market are problematic for at least three reasons. First, the use of women's full potential in the labor market is likely to result in greater macroeconomic efficiency, everything else equal. Second, jobs can be direct instruments of women's development and empowerment. Third, expanding women's labor market opportunities has potentially large positive spillover effects on women’s overall agency, control, and power.

On May 2, 2008, Cyclone Nargis struck Myanmar’s Ayeyarwady Delta and swept across the region toward Yangon. By the time the storm had passed, it had killed over 140,000 people, tearing apart families, destroying homes, and shattering livelihoods. In the months and years following Nargis,communities, supported by the national and international aid community, worked to rebuild their lives and repair the devastation that the cyclone had caused. Homes were rebuilt, paddy field walls repaired, and new fishing boats purchased. However, even as the process of recovery inched forward, villagers have had to contend with new and diverse shocks and changes that have both enabled and slowed their efforts to rebuild. Among others, climate change has led to unpredictable weather, hampering livelihoods, while the migration boom to Yangon and elsewhere has provided economic opportunity even as it has altered the local social fabric. These more recent issues have had a complex inter-relationship with changes wrought by Nargis. As time has passed, they have become the primary concern of most villages studied by the social impacts monitoring (SIM) research. But the long-term effects of Nargis remain visible, combining with newer issues to create new challenges,exacerbate old problems, and, in some cases, even hasten the recovery process. By focusing on a panel of 40 Nargis-affected villages across time, five rounds of SIM have been able to track how village life has changed both post-Nargis and, in more recent years, as villagers faced both new challenges and continued recovery from Nargis. This fifth round of SIM (SIM 5) provides a snapshot of village economic and social life in 2017 and analyzes change over more than nine years since Nargis. It assesses three main areas: (i) This focus area examines the conditions of livelihoods and the local socioeconomy in the context of Nargis’ destruction and the evolving context of the rural economy across Myanmar over the past five years. It looks at the three main livelihood groups (farmers, fishers, and landless laborers) and at key issues such as debt, land, and housing and local infrastructure; (ii) This area assesses how communities have dealt with both the long-term social upheaval caused by Nargis and the more recent (but no less dramatic) changes that have accompanied Myanmar’s political and economic transition; (iii) New to this round of SIM, the final analytical focus area identifies what recovery and resilience mean for households and communities in the Ayeyarwady Delta, what factors are most important in the recovery process and in building resilience, and to what extent villagers have had and have the capacity to develop both; SIM 5 placed particular emphasis on understanding change over time, both since 2013 (when the SIM 4 research was conducted) and prior to Cyclone Nargis. As much as possible, SIM 5 draws causal links between exogenous events (such as cyclones, other natural disasters, political change, and national economic development) and household and community actions.

This paper analyzes the incentives to labor supply faced by families, particularly mothers, with young children in the context of a recently introduced fertility promotion benefit in Poland. The paper is based on an adapted version of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's Tax-Benefit Model, which estimates households' net earnings after taxes and social transfers at different levels of wages. Since the recent introduction of the 500 benefit, some households face steep marginal tax rates due to the benefit withdrawal rules. Single parents with two children, and second earners with one child can expect their income to increase by only 30 and 25 percent of the minimum wage, respectively, if they take up a job at minimum wage. If they must also pay for childcare, having all adults working can cause losses of up to 30 percent compared with if one adult stayed home. Although the 500 program radically contributed to reducing child poverty, in the absence of complementary reforms, these disincentives could affect more than half a million households, disproportionately in the lowest quintile. Vouchers for private childcare have been adopted by some municipalities in Poland to counter unmet demand for public nurseries. A 75 percent subsidy of typical childcare costs would restore the financial viability of low-paying work for mothers with young children. Alternative remedies include a reform of the eligibility and withdrawal rules of the 500 program.

Mauritius is often cited as one of the few African success stories, and with good reason. In the aftermath of independence (1968), this small island nation in the Indian Ocean seemed to be bound for economic failure because of its high poverty rate and numerous vulnerabilities, including high population growth, ethnic tensions, substantial unemployment, and an economy greatly dependent on the production of sugar for international markets. However, Mauritius was successful in diversifying the economy and accomplishing an unprecedented structural transformation.The Inclusiveness of Growth and Shared Prosperity report (World Bank 2015a) turned the spotlight on the expanding gap of inequality in household incomes that occurred between 2007 and 2012 and on the negative impact on poverty. The report estimates that the incidence of absolute poverty between 2007 and 2012 would have declined twice as quickly had growth been shared more widely and inequality not worsened. Building on these earlier findings, this study investigates the driving forces behind the growing income inequality and identifies policy levers that could mitigate and, in the long run, possibly reverse the upward trend.This study takes a comprehensive approach to the determinants of inequality by including the role of the choices of households and individuals, markets, and institutions. The report is structured as follows. Chapter one sets the stage by presenting stylized facts on the trends in household income inequality between 2001 and 2015, comparing these trends with trends in consumption inequality, and identifying the main culprit behind the rapidly rising inequality in household incomes, that is, household labor income. Chapter two supplies a set of descriptive trends of the two groups of factors, namely, household demographics and labor market forces, that contribute to changes in household laborincome and follows up with a decomposition exercise on changes in household labor income between 2001 and 2015.Because the analysis indicates that an unequal increase in female labor force participation and rising inequality in individual earnings are among the main contributors to the expanding inequality in household labor income, Chapter three takes a deep dive into the issue of gender inequality in the labor market. The chapter illustrates the gender gap in labor market participation, describes the differences in the activities of working women in the labor market relative to men, and concludes with a detailed analysis of gender gaps in wages separately in the public and private sectors. Chapter four resumes the main analysis of the drivers of increasing inequality in individual earnings. The chapter first presents stylized facts about overall inequality in wages and then separates out changes in inequality between and within groups defined by demographic characteristics. The chapter distinguishes the role of changes in prices (or wages) and the role of changes in the composition of the workforce in rising earnings inequality. The second part of the chapter is devoted to the analysis of the role of the main potential drivers of expanding earnings inequality. The possible candidates include the interaction of changes in labor supply and labor demand, giving rise to skills shortages or surpluses, and changes in labor market institutions, namely, remuneration orders (ROs). The chapter concludes with an analysis of an additional source of skills mismatches among the employed population, namely, education mismatches, and advances potential explanations for the coexistence of a substantial skills shortage, over education, particularly among youth, and a large share of highly educated youth among the unemployed.

The proportions of girls marrying or having children before the age of 18 have been declining in Uganda according to data from the latest publicly available Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) implemented in 2011. Yet despite progress, more than one third of girls still marry as children, and close to three in ten girls have their first child before turning 18. Similarly, despite substantial efforts to improve educational attainment, only one in four girls completes lower secondary school, and an even smaller proportion completes upper secondary school. The government of Uganda has adopted a national strategy to end child marriage and teenage pregnancies. Improving girls’ education is also a priority of the government. Unfortunately, the cultural, economic, and social conditions that have historically contributed to child marriage, early childbearing, and low educational attainment for girls remain strong. More needs to be done to accelerate progress. To inspire greater investments in adolescent girls, this note analyses the economic and social impacts of these issues in Uganda. The note also suggests potential options for investments.

This is a joint study between the European Commission (EC), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which aims to inform employment support, activation, and social inclusion policy making, through an improved understanding of labor-market barriers.

This report is a joint study between the European Commission (EC), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It aims to inform employment support, activation, and social inclusion policy making, through an improved understanding of labor-market barriers. Covering 12 countries, the study builds on the previous joint EC and World Bank study to map the diversity of profiles of individuals who are out of work in six countries (Sundaram et al., 2014) and other analyses that characterize individuals with labor market difficulties (European Commission, 2012; Ferré et al., 2013; Immervoll, 2013). The study expands the previous analysis by looking at a broader group of labor market vulnerable beyond the out of work individuals to include: those in unstable employment, those with restricted hours, and those with near-zero incomes (i.e. individuals who are marginally employed). It also refines the analytical methodology by applying an employment barriers framework to facilitate policy making and country-specific application, and to provide a reference point for future methodological extensions.

This is a joint study between the European Commission (EC), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which aims to inform employment support, activation, and social inclusion policy making, through an improved understanding of labor-market barriers.

This is a joint study between the European Commission (EC), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which aims to inform employment support, activation, and social inclusion policy making, through an improved understanding of labor-market barriers.

This report is a joint study between the European Commission (EC), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It aims to inform employment support, activation, and social inclusion policy making, through an improved understanding of labor-market barriers. Covering 12 countries, the study builds on the previous joint EC and World Bank study to map the diversity of profiles of individuals who are out of work in six countries (Sundaram et al., 2014) and other analyses that characterize individuals with labor market difficulties (European Commission, 2012; Ferré et al., 2013; Immervoll, 2013). The study expands the previous analysis by looking at a broader group of labor market vulnerable beyond the out of work individuals to include: those in unstable employment, those with restricted hours, and those with near-zero incomes (i.e. individuals who are marginally employed). It also refines the analytical methodology by applying an employment barriers framework to facilitate policy making and country-specific application, and to provide a reference point for future methodological extensions.

This is a joint study between the European Commission (EC), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which aims to inform employment support, activation, and social inclusion policy making, through an improved understanding of labor-market barriers.

Despite a slight increase in female labor participation between 2012 and 2013, employment rates in Serbia stood at 40.1 percent for women in 2013, almost 15 percentage points below employment rates for men (at 54.9 percent). International evidence shows that support for childcare and eldercare affects women’s labor market participation. This note examines the care needs of families with children and or elderly household members and the provision of formal care services in Serbia with an emphasis on the availability, price, and quality characteristics. Based on the analysis of an independent mixed-methods dataset collected in the Western Balkans region, this note documents the perceptions and barriers in the use of quality formal care in Serbia. Quality provision of formal eldercare can potentially improve health outcomes for the elderly through prevention, early detection, and consistent maintenance of chronic diseases, which may imply long-term cost savings in the healthcare sector.

The aim of this case study is to qualitatively assess men and women's perceptions of economic mobility, access to labor market and entrepreneurship opportunities, and the impact of selected labor market and social assistance policies. Through the use of focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews, the study aims to uncover underlying differences in perspective by gender, related to the main study topics. The study is structured along four main themes: (1) economic mobility and shared prosperity; (2) pathways and barriers to employment; (3) youth transitions, and (4) coping with poverty and joblessness.

This note examines the provision of childcare and eldercare in FYR Macedonia with an emphasis on the availability, price, and quality of care, and suggests policy priorities that address the identified challenges. The analysis in this note is based on a study aimed at exploring childcare and eldercare in the Western Balkans region, drawing primarily from a new mixed-methods dataset, described in the following section, and building on relevant quantitative surveys and data sources specific to Western Balkans countries. The note is structured as follows: section two introduces the new, independent mixed methods data set that is the basis for the analysis and findings presented. Section three describes the use of formal care arrangements in FYR Macedonia, based on the analysis of perspectives both from families with care needs and from care providers and discussing the role of norms and perceptions of childcare and eldercare use, the following sections are dedicated to the description of supply and demand of childcare and eldercare, respectively. Sections four and five focuses on the supply and demand of childcare, and sections six and seven describe supply and demand of eldercare. Section eight concludes by examining what we know in terms of policies that can support families in informal care provision in a sustainable and incentive-compatible manner.

Despite significant progress in closing the gender gap in education, there is a significant disparity between male and female labor participation rates in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). Among men aged 15 to 64 years, 65.7 percent participate in the labor force compared to only 41 percent of females in the same age group. It is estimated that BiH forgoes around 16 percent of gross national income due to gender disparities in labor force participation. The conflicting demand of women's time for care and work activities represents a fundamental barrier to economic participation and generates a vicious circle of low labor market attachment and prominence of the care provider role that leads to increased vulnerability and gender-based inequalities.

Labor market engagement of women is very low in Kosovo - only 12.5 percent of women of working age are employed compared to 41.3 percent of men - suggesting that women face obstacles to work and or being hired. These barriers can be related to a multiplicity of factors, including labor regulations - such as maternity provisions - but also others such as disincentives to work from taxes and social protection systems; limited flexible work arrangements; limited access to information, networks, and productive inputs such as credit; and lack of access to childcare, coupled with social norms and attitudes towards women. This note focuses specifically on regulations related to maternity and family leave, and their potential impact on women’s labor market outcomes. Legislation on maternity leave in Kosovo was enacted with the law on labor on December 2010, providing mothers to nine months of paid leave and three months of unpaid leave. The note is organized around five main messages that emerge from reviewing the evidence of the impact of maternity leave on female labor force participation and employment, both through international benchmarking of maternity leave duration and payment forms in Kosovo, review of existing studies, and through data collection and analysis of Kosovo-specific qualitative evidence.

This note examines the provision of childcare and eldercare in Kosovo with an emphasis on the availability, price, and quality of care, and suggests policy priorities that address the identified challenges. The analysis in this note is based on a study aimed at exploring childcare and eldercare in the Western Balkans region, drawing primarily from a new mixed-methods dataset, described in the following section, and building on relevant quantitative surveys and data sources specific to Western Balkans countries. The note is structured as follows: section two introduces the new, independent mixed methods data set that is the basis for the analysis and findings presented. Section three describes the use of formal care arrangements in Kosovo. Next, based on the analysis of perspectives both from families with care needs and from care providers and discussing the role of norms and perceptions of childcare and eldercare use, the following sections are dedicated to the description of supply and demand of childcare and eldercare, respectively. Sections four and five focuses on the supply and demand of childcare, and sections six and seven describe supply and demand of eldercare. Section eight concludes by examining what we know in terms of policies that can support families in informal care provision in a sustainable and incentive-compatible manner.