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The authors examined task-based (i.e., executive function), surveyed (i.e., effortful control), and physiological (i.e., resting cardiac respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) measures of child and maternal regulation as distinct moderators of longitudinal bidirectional links between child externalizing (EXT) behaviors and harsh parenting (HP) from 6 to 9 years. The sample size was 299 (50.9% female; 1% Asian, 4% multiple races; 14% Black; 78% White), and participants were recruited in the United States (a rural college town in Virginia and a midsized city in North Carolina). Higher child EXT at 6 years predicted higher HP at 7-8 years, which predicted higher EXT at 9 years. Also, this path was moderated by 6-year child effortful control, 6-year resting RSA, and 9-year executive function. In contrast, there was no moderating effect of any measure of maternal regulation. Findings suggest it is important to consider child self-regulation when examining bidirectionality in parent and child effects for HP and child EXT.

Executive functions (EFs) are an umbrella term that includes various cognitive abilities (such as inhibition, planning, goal-setting, monitoring, and shifting). There is common agreement that there are three main EFs: inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. Further studies have reported that compared to typically developing peers, children with cerebral palsy (CP) show deficits in EF skills. This study aims to evaluate children with CP's inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility skills. Forty children with CP between the ages of 7-13 were included in the present study. EF scores of the CP group were compared with scores of typically developing peers matched one-to-one by age and sex. The EF skills were evaluated with Wisconsin card sorting test (WCST), Stroop color-word test (SCWT) TBAG Form, and executive function behavior rating scale parent form (BRIEF-P). It was determined that there was a significant difference in the WCST total trials, total errors, categories completed, and percent conceptual level responses scores (p < 0.05); SCWT-TBAG scores (p < 0.05), and BRIEF-P all scores (p [less than or equal to] 0.01) of children with CP. The results of this study suggest that children with CP are disadvantaged with EF skills in terms of inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility.

This study examines differences in English language comprehension, reading fluency, and executive functions among Spanish-English bilinguals with reading difficulties. Reading difficulties examined included general reading difficulties, defined by low word reading and reading comprehension, and specific-reading comprehension difficulties, defined by low reading comprehension yet adequate word reading. Participants (N = 86) were categorized using multiple measures of reading comprehension and word reading in each of 6th, 7th, and 8th grade. Participants were also categorized based on persistent difficulties (i.e. remaining in the same group across multiple grades). On two measures of language comprehension, readers with either difficulty tended to demonstrate significant weaknesses relative to average readers. On passage reading fluency, readers with specific-reading comprehension difficulties performed worse than average readers but better than readers with general reading difficulties. On executive functions, readers with general reading difficulties demonstrated weaknesses relative to average readers, but there was little evidence that readers with specific-reading comprehension difficulties showed these weaknesses. These findings typically held when looking at readers with persistently defined difficulties. Longitudinal analyses indicated that 47% of students with S-RCD and 56% of students with GRD remained in their group across the three years, consistent with prior research. Findings highlight potential weaknesses in executive functions for children with general reading difficulties that should be considered when designing instruction for these students. These findings also support prior research on the importance of developing English language and reading fluency for Spanish-English bilingual children with reading difficulties. [This article was published in "Reading & Writing Quarterly" (EJ1344195).]

Cognitive flexibility (CF) is the ability to shift between concepts or rules. Difficulty with CF is associated with autism (i.e., ASD) as it contributes to repetitive behaviours. However, little is known about CF skills of autistic adolescents with low intelligence. This study uses the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) to assess the CF of 36 adolescents, all with a Weschler full-scale IQ between 50 and 85, 14 of whom had an ASD diagnosis. The results indicated no statistically significant differences in WCST performance between those with and without ASD. It was also found that performance IQ significantly contributed to the WCST performance in the ASD group only, suggesting an autism-specific role of non-verbal cognitive functioning in CF.

This research aims to evaluate the predicting role of executive functions, specially inhibition and flexibility, in reading comprehension. Participants were evaluated with inhibition and flexibility measures in first- grade, and later in third- grade their reading comprehension, oral and silent reading fluency, as well as their decoding skills were measured. Results show that first grade inhibition and flexibility are direct predictors of third- grade reading comprehension. When the indirect effect of inhibition and flexibility on reading comprehension was tested through measures of reading fluency and decoding, it was found that neither ORF nor decoding mediates the relationship between the variables. However, it was found that SRF is a variable that mediates the relationship between flexibility and reading comprehension. Results are discussed in the context of the relevance of early measures of inhibition and flexibility to explain reading comprehension and the role of SRF in this relationship.

Interpersonal Skills (ISs) and Executive Functions (EFs) are two groups of skills which are extremely relevant for children's cognitive, social and psychological development. As well as being interrelated, both can be modulated by other variables such as intelligence or sex. Many studies have tried to establish the relationship between them, but no definitive conclusions have been made to date. Therefore, the objective of this study is to explore the relationship between intelligence and sex in children with measures of ISs and EFs. The participants were 121 children between the ages of 7 and 13, divided into two groups: 76 children (52 boys and 24 girls) with average intelligence quotient (IQ) and 45 children (28 boys and 17 girls) with high IQ. All the participants were assessed using ISs, EFs and intelligence measures. The results showed children with high IQ were better at ISs and EFs. Regarding sex, boys of the High IQ group showed better skills than girls in working memory, inhibition and cause attribution in interpersonal conflicts. Finally, the implications for assessing and supporting the gifted population are discussed.

Children develop their language capacities and executive functions (EF) throughout their school-aged years. Research has shown that bilingual children show different patterns of EF performance when compared to their monolingual counterparts. However, it is less clear how variations in children's multilingual experiences associate with variation in EF performance. The current study examined the variability of multilingual experience across the contexts of home and school and how it relates to EF. Sixty-seven children and adolescents from a multilingual community completed EF tasks that assessed their attention and monitoring. Given the sociolinguistic landscape of a multilingual community, all participants reported having exposure to at least a second language, and their multilingual experience was examined on a continuum across different contexts. Age was positively associated with both attention and monitoring. In addition, the degree of dynamic multilingual experience contributed to performance on monitoring. Our study shows that in children and adolescents, multilingual experience across the contexts of home and school accounted for additional variation in EF beyond chronological age.

The purpose of the study is to examine the role of spatial ability and attention shifting in reading of illustrated science texts. Thirty-five fourth/fifth elementary students read two science texts. Prior knowledge and retention/transfer learning outcomes were measured using researcher-developed measures. While reading, students' eye movements were monitored with an eye-tracker. Several eye movement indices were used to reflect reading processes. Fixation count on text/picture was used to represent students' attentional focus on text or picture. Text to text saccades and picture to picture saccades were used to reflect students' information organization. Students' integrative reading behavior was measured by eye movement transitions between text and picture. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Visual Perception Skill Test were used to assess attention shifting and visuospatial working memory, respectively. Multiple regressions were conducted to examine whether students' spatial ability and attention shifting predict text processing, picture processing, or integrative processing of text and picture. Hierarchical regressions were conducted to examine whether students' integrative reading make unique and direct contributions to their learning outcomes. The study found that 1) both spatial ability and attention shifting are significant predictors for integrative reading behavior while they are not for other processing behaviors (i.e., text processing and picture processing) and 2) integrative reading behaviors in illustrated text reading account for significant amounts of variance in the transfer outcomes while not in the retention outcomes. This study gives practical implications on the development of visual literacy interventions and on how teachers design their instruction about science text reading.

Executive function (EF) has rarely been considered for adolescents' daily school outcomes or in conjunction with ethnic/racial discrimination. Using 2-week, daily data from 137 ethnic/racial minority adolescents (M[subscript age] = 14.56; 53% female; 56% Black, 19% Latinx, 7% Asian, 7% Native, 12% other [e.g., multiracial]) in the Midwest United States, this study examined same-day, within-person associations between EF and school engagement (controlling for prior-day engagement), and how these associations varied by adolescents' daily experiences of ethnic/racial discrimination. Two EF components, inhibitory control and working memory, were associated with higher levels of school engagement on the same day, only on days when adolescents reported lower than their typical levels of discrimination. An alternative, indirect effect (i.e., discrimination compromised same-day school engagement via EF) was not observed. Findings highlight novel mechanisms through which discrimination may contribute to educational disparities.

The current study investigated the effects of metacognitive and executive function (EF) training on childhood EF (inhibition, working memory [WM], cognitive flexibility, and proactive/reactive control) and academic skills (reading, reasoning, and math) among children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Children (N = 134, M[subscript age] = 8.70 years) were assigned randomly to the three training groups: (a) metacognitive training of basic EF processes (meta-EF), (b) training of basic EF processes (basic-EF), and (c) active controls (active control). They underwent 16 training sessions over the course of 2 months. No effects of EF and/or metacognitive training were found for academic outcomes. However, both meta-EF and basic-EF groups demonstrated greater gains than the active control group on proactive control engagement and WM, suggesting that EF training promotes a shift to more mature ways of engaging EF. Our findings suggest minimal near- and far-transfer effects of metacognitive training but highlight that proactive engagement of EF can be promoted through EF training in children.

This study examined the longitudinal associations of various executive function components with subsequent psychiatric problems in Chinese school-age children. Data from 1,639 children (44.36% girls) ages 6-13 years were drawn from the Children School Functions and Brain Development project. Executive function components were assessed by the cancellation test, the Corsi test, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Psychiatric problems were determined by parent report. All assessments were administered twice, separated by a 1-year interval. Cross-lagged panel models showed that cognitive flexibility and general psychiatric problems (general p) mutually predicted each other. Worse inhibitory control at baseline significantly predicted more externalizing problems 1 year later, regardless of age, while externalizing problems did not significantly predict inhibitory control 1 year later. Working memory at baseline did not significantly predict internalizing problems and vice versa. These findings demonstrate that better inhibitory control may help to prevent or reduce externalizing problems in Chinese school-age children and that higher cognitive flexibility may help to mitigate general psychiatric problems.

Mathematical problems can be divided into two types, namely, process-open and process-constrained problems. Solving these two types of problems may require different cognitive mechanisms. However, there has been only one study that investigated the differences of the cognitive abilities in process-open and process-constrained problem solving, and these researchers did not consider the influence of other closely related cognitive abilities. Therefore, in the current study we aimed to investigate the different cognitive mechanisms for process-open and process-constrained problem solving while controlling for related cognitive abilities. For this study we recruited 336 fifth grade students (mean age = 10.73 ± 0.32 years old). The results showed that after controlling for age, gender, and other cognitive abilities, inductive reasoning (measured by nonverbal matrix reasoning) contributes only to process-open problem solving; language comprehension (measured by sentence comprehension) contributes only to process-constrained problem solving; spatial ability (measured by paper folding) contributes to both process-open and process-constrained problem solving; and executive function (measured by the Wisconsin card sort test) contributes to neither process-open nor process-constrained problem solving. These results suggest that cognitive abilities related to generating new information (e.g., inductive reasoning, spatial ability) might play an important role in process-open problem solving. In contrast, cognitive abilities related to retrieval prior knowledge (e.g., language comprehension, spatial ability) might play an important role in process-constrained problem solving. The current findings could promote the efficiency of learning and teaching by enabling the designing of different instruction for process-open and process-constrained problem solving according to students' cognitive characteristics.

Purpose: This study examined bilinguals' performance on functional executive function map tasks such as the Zoo Map from the Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome and the extent to which working memory, set-shifting, and inhibition measures predicted bilinguals' performance on these tasks. Additionally, we explored the utility of pictorial map tasks as a measure of complex executive function in bilinguals. We hypothesized that bilinguals would perform better on the pictorial map tasks due to the reduced language processing demand. Method: The analyses included 131 bilingual young adults who completed a comprehensive language history questionnaire, an English proficiency test, a battery of working memory and executive function tasks, and verbal and pictorial map tasks. Results: Contrary to predictions, bilinguals' performance on the verbal maps did not differ significantly from that on the pictorial maps. Two multiple regression models significantly predicted performance on the verbal and pictorial maps, accounting for 7%-25% of the variance in the map scores. Working memory and interference control were the most prominent predictors within these models. Conclusions: In our study, bilinguals' performance on the verbal maps did not differ significantly from that on the pictorial maps. Additionally, English proficiency did not correlate with the participants' verbal map scores. These results suggest that executive function map tasks (e.g., the Zoo Map) are a useful clinical tool for assessing executive function in bilinguals. The findings of this study are discussed in light of the current literature on executive functions in bilinguals.

Background: Executive functions (EF) impairments have long been observed in children and youths with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Until very recently, little attention has been paid to examine EF profiles of adults with ASD. Given the importance of EF to cope with the demands of daily life and participate in society (e.g. maintaining an employment), this study reports on a preliminary investigation aimed at exploring planning skills and cognitive flexibility in a sample of adults with ASD and without intellectual disability. A secondary aim was to explore the contribution of both intellectual functioning and socio-demographic variables on efficiency of EF. Method: Twenty-nine autistic adults (age range 18-50) were assessed using the Tower of London (ToL) test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Intellectual functioning was assessed with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - IV. Results: From the evaluations emerged poor performances in sub-processes related to planning skills as assessed by ToL (number of Moves, Correct Reponses, and Execution time). In contrast, WCST performance did not result impaired in any of the indicators considered. Exploratory analyses revealed a strong relationship between the time needed to complete the planning tasks and visuo-spatial reasoning. Further, strong inverse associations were found between global intellectual functioning and chronological age in the WCST. Conclusions: The results of this study highlight mixed EF profiles in a sample of adults with ASD. Future investigations may build on the results of the present study to understand whether evaluating planning abilities of adults with ASD by means of measures that do not require a time-limit would yield different results compared to time-constrained assessment procedures.

Objective: Theory suggests that impaired executive functioning (EF) might explain several symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children. However, only a few studies have examined the efficacy of EF training for the children using randomized control trial designs, and only two of them found significant benefits of the training. Method: We designed Comprehensive Attention Training System (CATS), and tested this new EF intervention for children with ASD in a small-sampled randomized controlled trial. Twenty-five children with ASD aged six to twelve were randomly assigned to either the CATS or the control training and were assessed pre- and post-training. Results: Relative to the control group, the CATS group improved on EF as measured by the trail-making test, avoiding perseverative errors, and forming conceptual responses in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task. There were also indications that CATS contributed to long-term communication skills as measured by the Vineland adaptive behavior scales. Conclusions: We report preliminary evidence that the CATS intervention may improve the EF of school-aged children with ASD compared to a control intervention. We discuss the results in terms of their generalizability to other developmental disorders.

Dysexecutive syndrome has been consistently reported in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Particularly, impairments have been documented in working memory, inhibition, and mental flexibility. However, the relationship between executive impairments and intellectual functioning is far from clear in this population. This study aimed to investigate how executive functions (EF) are associated with intelligence in ASD. Children and adolescents with ASD (N = 69) were compared to typically developing (TD) individuals (N = 68), matched in chronological age and sex. The Wechsler Intelligence Scales were used to assess participants' intelligence quotient (estimated IQ). EF -- working memory, shifting, and inhibition -- were assessed using the Digit Span, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Stroop Test, respectively. TD individuals outperformed ASD in all cognitive assessment measures. Correlation analysis showed that while for the ASD group intelligence was associated with shifting abilities, in the TD group the association was observed for working memory measures. Linear regression analysis supported that the association between intelligence and EF domains differed between groups, particularly regarding shifting abilities (interaction term significant), whereas working memory showed a similar trend in both groups (difference in effect size is non-significant). Results suggest that specific executive function domains are associated with ASD intellectual functioning and differ from TD individuals, which may be related to adaptive behavior outcomes.

Background: In this study we aimed to explore how intelligence and executive functioning are related to decision-making regarding social situations in persons with mild ID. Method: We studied 80 vocational school students with mild ID; the controls were 80 students of a similar age. We assessed decision-making ability with the Important Life Decisions Task. Intelligence was assessed with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale -- Revised (WAIS-R), and executive functioning with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Results: The WAIS-R Verbal Comprehension and the Memory/Freedom From Distractibility factors predicted the decision-making score. Executive functioning was not related to decision-making. There was no interaction between the group and other variables. Conclusions: Verbal intellectual abilities and abilities related to short-term memory and attention play an important role in decision-making regarding social situations. The difference in performance between persons with ID and the control group should be regarded as quantitative and not qualitative.

Item recognition and temporal order memory follow different developmental trajectories during middle childhood, with item recognition performance stabilizing and temporal order memory performance continuing to improve. We investigated the potential unique role of individual executive functions on item recognition and temporal order memory during this critical developmental period. Our results replicate and expand on previous findings, suggesting that executive functions, specifically inhibitory control and working memory, may be more crucial for successful temporal order memory than for item recognition during middle childhood.

Detecting a pattern within a sequence of ordered units, defined as patterning, is a cognitive ability that is important in learning mathematics and influential in learning to read. The present study was designed to examine relations between first-grade children's executive functions, patterning, and reading abilities, and to examine whether these relations differ by the type of pattern. The results showed that working memory correlated with reading fluency, and comprehension measures. Inhibition correlated only with the latter. Cognitive flexibility was correlated with patterning performance and with performance on object size patterns, whereas working memory was correlated with performance on symmetrical patterns and growing number patterns. These results suggest that the cognition required for completing patterns differs depending on the pattern type. Teachers may find it beneficial to place emphasis on the switching and working memory components of completing patterning tasks, depending on the type of patterns used in instruction.

The purpose of this study was to understand the relationship between executive functions and mathematical abilities to determine the contribution of these functions to math performance. In this study, 30 students were selected from among 4th graders of elementary school, in two groups with low achievement in mathematics (poor) and high achievement in mathematics (strong), such that their IQ and reading ability were as close as possible. These groups were measured and compared in terms of attention by means of continuous performance test and shifting by means of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. The ANOVA and t-test showed that the low-achieving group stood significantly lower than the high-achieving group in shifting, which mirrors the effect of this function in math performance of the students. However, there was no significant difference between the two groups in terms of attention.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between cognitive flexibility, academic skills, educational trajectories, and career goals of college students with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Participants completed a demographic questionnaire, objective and subjective measures of cognitive flexibility, and tests of academic achievement. Cognitive Flexibility predicted academic achievement; reading skills increased as subjective cognitive flexibility increased and as the tendency to perseverate (i.e., to stick with an ineffective strategy) on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test decreased. Objective cognitive flexibility also predicted mathematical and writing skills. Although students with different college majors did not vary significantly in their cognitive flexibility, the interaction between cognitive flexibility and ADHD shared a significant relationship with career confidence. Our results expand on the literature examining cognitive flexibility and have implications for both academic and career planning, particularly for students who may struggle with attention.

The present study evaluated: (1) the effects of two training programs designed for promoting Theory of Mind (ToM) skills in children aged 7/8; and (2) the relations between second-order recursive thinking (II-order-RT), advanced-ToM (Adv_ToM) and metacognition. Ninety-one 7- to 8-year-old children were assigned to one of three training conditions: a II-order-RT, an Adv_ToM, and a control condition. Groups were equivalent at pretest for SES, executive functions and reading comprehension. The main effect of time was significant on II-order-RT, but not on Adv_ToM and metacognition. Children of the II-order-RT group improved their performance on over the training period II-order-RT while children of the control group did not) and they also outperformed children of the control condition at posttest. This positive effect generalized to Adv_ToM. Children of the Adv_ToM group improved over the training period their performance on both Adv_ToM and II-order-RT (while children of the control group did not); moreover, they outperformed children of the control condition at posttest on Adv_ToM, but not on II-order-RT. The benefits of both ToM training programs extended to metacognitive knowledge. Our findings throw light upon generative mechanisms of acquisition that explain the relation between II-order-RT and Adv_ToM, and between these mature ToM skills and metacognition.

Objectives: The aim of the study is to distinguish between perceptuomotor and cognitive inflexibility as the source of set-switching difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Methods: Seventeen adolescents with ASD and 17 neurotypical controls were presented with a computerized sequencing game using colored shapes. The sequence required a shift in perceptuomotor responding that could also be represented at a conceptual level. Measures of perceptuomotor inflexibility were based on errors and response times specifically on the critical switch item in the sequence. The task included three transfer phases in which the same rule was to be applied to new shapes and colors. Higher-order rule conceptualization was operationalized as the ability to abstract the switching rule and apply it across these phases. Results: Participants with ASD showed predicted difficulties on the perceptuomotor shift, but no deficit on the transfer phases. Conclusions: The study indicates a problem with perceptuomotor inflexibility in ASD that can explain why 'extra-dimensional' shifting is sometimes reported as problematic in this group. Implications for difficulties in more real-world contexts are discussed.

The present study aims to examine the contribution of cognitive flexibility to metalinguistic skills and reading comprehension during primary school years. Forty-nine third-grade primary school children completed the measures of cognitive flexibility, metalinguistic skills including syntactic awareness (word order knowledge), morphosyntactic skill and discourse awareness (sentence order knowledge), and reading comprehension. Hierarchical regression analysis results showed that syntactic awareness, morphosyntactic skill, discourse awareness and cognitive flexibility are significantly predictive of reading comprehension. However, cognitive flexibility is a unique predictor of reading comprehension over and above age and all other metalinguistic measures. Cognitive flexibility is insignificantly associated with syntactic awareness, morphosyntactic skill, and discourse awareness. The results extended the understanding of the role of cognitive flexibility in the reading comprehension process.

This study analyzes the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-Learning Potential (WCST-LP) in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) versus children with typical development (TD). Its main aim was to assess: the test's construct validity; the effect of IQ on its pretest and LP scores; and whether the WCST-LP held any relationship to cognitive/EF and social abilities. Participants were 105 children (43 with ASD/62 with TD). Results showed evidence of construct validity in an ASD population (improvements from pretest to posttest), that full IQ influenced pretest performance but did not affect LP, and that a relationship between LP and verbal and social abilities existed only in children with ASD. Conclusions indicate the appropriateness of the WCST-LP in ASD prognosis assessment.

Research investigating links between academic achievement and active music instruction has not previously differentiated between different types of instruction. In the current study, 155 seventh- and eighth-grade middle school band students were divided into two groups. Both groups received 2 months of instruction in jazz phrasing, scales, and vocabulary, but only the experimental group was taught to improvise. All instruction was part of the warm-up routine in regular band classes. All students were tested before and after instruction on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (cognitive flexibility) and the classic Stroop task (inhibitory control). At posttest, eighth-grade students in the experimental group scored significantly better on cognitive flexibility with a smaller percentage of perseverative errors, whereas the treatment had no effect on seventh-grade students on this outcome. Seventh graders, but not eighth graders, in the experimental group increased their posttest scores for inhibitory control, though this result was only marginally significant. In relation to previous research, the current results strongly suggest that far-transfer effects of active music participation depend on the nature of the instruction. Results of prior and future studies should therefore be interpreted in light of the type of music-making engaged by participants.

The world's population is aging at an increasing rate. Even in the absence of neurodegenerative disorders, healthy aging affects perception and cognition. In the context of cognition, common factors are well established. Much less is known about common factors for vision. Here, we tested 92 healthy older and 104 healthy younger participants in 19 visual tests (including visual search and contrast sensitivity) and three cognitive tests (including verbal fluency and digit span). Unsurprisingly, younger participants performed better than older participants in almost all tests. Surprisingly, however, the performance of older participants was mostly uncorrelated between visual tests, and we found no evidence for a common factor.

When people navigate, they use strategies dependent on one of two memory systems. The hippocampus-based spatial strategy consists of using multiple landmarks to create a cognitive map of the environment. In contrast, the caudate nucleus-based response strategy is based on the memorization of a series of turns. Importantly, response learners display more gray matter and functional activity in the caudate nucleus and less gray matter in the hippocampus. In parallel, the caudate nucleus is involved in decision-making by mediating attention toward rewards and in set-shifting by mediating preparatory actions. The present study, therefore, examined the link between navigational strategy use, that are associated with gray matter differences in the caudate nucleus and hippocampus, and decision-making and set-shifting performance. Fifty-three participants completed the 4 on 8 virtual maze, the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 (WCST-64), and a task-switching test. The results revealed that people who use response strategies displayed increased risk-taking behavior in the IGT compared to the people using hippocampus-dependent spatial strategies. Response strategy was also associated with enhanced set-shifting performance in the WCST-64 and task-switching test. These results confirm that risk-taking and set-shifting behavior, that are differentially impacted by the caudate nucleus and hippocampus memory systems, can be predicted by navigational strategy.

Theory of mind (ToM) refers to the ability to make inferences about mental states. Thus far, little research has examined ToM development in middle childhood. Importantly, recent studies have distinguished between making inferences about beliefs (cognitive ToM) and emotions (affective ToM). ToM has also been associated with executive functioning, though research on the differential relations between cognitive ToM and affective ToM and specific components of executive functioning is scarce. The current study examined advanced cognitive and affective ToM in 8- to 11-year-olds (N = 168). Working memory, inhibition, and set-shifting abilities were also assessed. Results showed that, in this age group, cognitive ToM increased significantly with age, and combined cognitive and affective ToM trendwise increased with age. All three domains of executive functioning (EF) showed age-related improvement. Inhibitory control and verbal IQ significantly predicted cognitive ToM, whereas verbal IQ predicted affective ToM. These results suggest that cognitive and affective components of ToM are distinguishable and may be differentially related to EF.

Many adolescent learners have difficulty understanding the relevance of mathematics for their lives. This problem is particularly pernicious among Black and Latino adolescents who often face cultural stigma that can affect their perceived value of mathematics. The present study used concurrent nested mixed methods to explore this issue in 419 urban Black and Latino adolescents. Structured classroom observations, a computerized cognitive assessment, and surveys were used to examine how teacher math applications (TMAs) and adolescent cognitive flexibility interact to predict students' valuing of mathematics. From a subset of the larger sample (n = 37), semistructured qualitative interviews were used to understand how these adolescents came to view mathematics as a transformative tool in their lives, particularly in the face of cultural stigma. The quantitative results revealed that TMAs were associated with students' value of mathematics. However, these results also illustrated how TMAs interacted with adolescent cognitive flexibility to predict students' growth in valuing mathematics over the school year. The qualitative interviews corroborated the quantitative findings, but also revealed 3 themes that extended the quantitative results, uncovering racialized facets of valuing mathematics. The 3 themes that emerged were: "utility orientations", "alternative messengers", and "resisting stigma" and "protecting collective identity". Altogether, these results demonstrated the role real-world applications, race, and adolescent cognition can have in urban mathematics classrooms. These findings suggest teachers' sensitivity to these issues can support Black and Latino adolescents' persistence in mathematics and understanding of self. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: This study suggests that teacher messages about the real-world relevance of mathematics matters in shaping how urban Black and Latino adolescents value mathematics. However, this study showed math teachers infrequently connected their instruction to the real world. To support adolescents' value of mathematics, teachers need to better understand how to use real-world applications in the classroom that are sensitive to race, context, and adolescent cognition.

This study used a quasi-experimental design to investigate the impact of Rapid Reading Skills Training (RRST) on some reading outcomes for primary school students in central China and also examined the influence of cognitive flexibility on intervention outcomes. A sample of 108 students (mean age = 11.75 years) were recruited. Students' cognitive flexibility was measured with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task. Cluster randomization was used to assign students at the whole class level to either an experimental or control condition. A 12-session RRST intervention was completed with the experimental class (N = 54). Silent reading speed and passage comprehension were measured before and after training for all students. Independent samples t-tests and two-factor repeated measures ANOVA revealed that students in the experimental class displayed higher scores for reading speed and effective reading rate post-intervention than those in the control class. Students who had scored higher on cognitive flexibility showed significantly larger increases post-intervention than those scored lower. Results provide preliminary support for using RRST to increase rapid silent reading speed among Chinese primary school students, though replication and more rigorous experimental designs are needed. Cognitive flexibility may enhance gains associated with this type of intervention. Implications for school psychologists are discussed.

The complicated cognitive processes involved in natural (primary) bilingualism lead to significant cognitive development. Executive functions as a fundamental component of human cognition are deemed to be affected by language learning. To date, a large number of studies have investigated how natural (primary) bilingualism influences executive functions; however, the way acquired (secondary) bilingualism manipulates executive functions is poorly understood. To fill this gap, controlling for age, gender, IQ, and socio-economic status, the researchers compared 60 advanced learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) to 60 beginners on measures of executive functions involving Stroop, Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) and Wechsler's digit span tasks. The results suggested that mastering English as a foreign language causes considerable enhancement in two components of executive functions, namely cognitive flexibility and working memory. However, no significant difference was observed in inhibitory control between the advanced EFL learners and beginners.

This paper examines the neurobiology of fluid cognitive functions of the prefrontal cortex and considers learning disability as a specific example of a group of developmental disorders characterized by fluid skills impairment in the presence of crystallized intelligence in the normal range. Research indicating fluid cognitive impairments in children with learning disability is reviewed and developmental and measurement implications of these findings are discussed. It is concluded that advances in knowledge of the neurobiology of the prefrontal cortex and in the measurement of fluid cognitive functions can play a central role in progress in learning disabilities research.

The aim of this study was to identify specific cognitive abilities that predict functional outcome in high-functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and to clarify the contribution of those abilities and their relationships. In total, 41 adults with ASD performed cognitive tasks in a broad range of neuro- and social cognitive domains, and information concerning functional outcomes was obtained. Regression analyses revealed that emotion perception and verbal generativity predicted adaptive functioning directly, and the former mediated between the other two. These findings provide the first evidence of a triadic relationship among neuro- and social cognition and functional outcome in this population. Our results suggest that psychosocial interventions targeting these cognitive abilities could benefit social adaptation in adults with ASD.

This study examined the effects of a 12-week physical activity intervention on the motor skill proficiency and executive function of 22 boys (aged 9.08 ± 1.75 years) with autism spectrum disorder. In Phase I of the 12 weeks, 11 boys with autism spectrum disorder (Group A) received the intervention, whereas the other 11 boys with autism spectrum disorder (Group B) did not (true control, no intervention). The arrangement was reversed in Phase II, which lasted an additional 12 weeks. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test were conducted three times for each participant (Group A, primary grouping: baseline (T1), post-assessment (T2), and follow-up assessment (T3); Group B, control grouping: T1-T2; intervention condition, T2-T3). The main findings were that both groups of children with autism spectrum disorder significantly exhibited improvements in motor skill proficiency (the total motor composite and two motor-area composites) and executive function (three indices of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test) after 12 weeks of physical activity intervention. In addition, the effectiveness appeared to have been sustained for at least 12 weeks in Group A. The findings provide supporting evidence that physical activity interventions involving table tennis training may be a viable therapeutic option for treating children with autism spectrum disorder.

Impaired insight is common in schizophrenia. Etiological models focusing on single determinants have not succeeded in explaining insight deficits. More complex models seem promising. This study tests Startup's (1996) model of insight and cognition, predicting a curvilinear relationship and specific insight-cognition configurations. Patients with schizophrenia diagnoses (N 248) were assessed with the Dynamic Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCSTdyn) and measures of psychopathology and premorbid intelligence. In a regression model connecting insight and WCSTdyn, the linear and quadratic term accounted for a small but significant proportion of variance. Cluster analysis yielded two cognitively high-functioning groups differing in insight and a group with impaired cognition and reduced insight. Results support Startup's framework of multiple barriers to insight. Cognitive deficits seem to be one insight-limiting factor, but motivational influences on insight cannot be excluded. Research on therapeutic interventions should take these different pathways into account.

This study investigated the roles of different executive function (EF) components (inhibition, shifting, and working memory) in 2-step arithmetic word problem solving. A sample of 139 children aged 8 years old and regularly attending the 3rd grade of primary school were tested on 6 EF tasks measuring different EF components, a reading task and a reading comprehension task, an arithmetic facts task evaluating basic knowledge of calculation, and three 2-step arithmetic word problems. Multiple hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to investigate the roles of the different EF components in the various phases of the problem-solving process. The results showed that EF affects the various phases of problem solving differently over and above calculation knowledge and reading abilities. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to further understanding the role of cognitive skills in mathematical problem solving and in relation to instructional approaches that may increase children's performance on 2-step arithmetic word problems.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterised by profound difficulties in empathic processing and executive control. Whilst the links between these processes have been frequently investigated in populations with autism, few studies have examined them at the subclinical level. In addition, the contribution of alexithymia, a trait characterised by impaired interoceptive awareness and empathy, and elevated in those with ASD, is currently unclear. The present two-part study employed a comprehensive battery of tasks to examine these processes. Findings support the notion that executive function and theory of mind are related abilities. They also suggest that individuals with elevated levels of autism-like traits experience a partially similar pattern of social and executive function difficulties to those diagnosed with ASD, and that these impairments are not explained by co-occurring alexithymia.

We conducted a meta-analysis of 31 studies, spanning 30 years, utilizing the WCST in participants with autism. We calculated Cohen's d effect sizes for four measures of performance: sets completed, perseveration, failure-to-maintain-set, and non-perseverative errors. The average weighted effect size ranged from 0.30 to 0.74 for each measure, all statistically greater than 0. No evidence was found for reduced impairment when WCST is administered by computer. Age and PIQ predicted perseverative error rates, while VIQ predicted non-perseverative error rates, and both perseverative and non-perseverative error rates in turn predicted number of sets completed. No correlates of failure-to-maintain set errors were found; further research is warranted on this aspect of WCST performance in autism.

More than 20?years ago, Minshew and colleagues proposed the Complex Information Processing model of autism in which the impairment is characterized as a generalized deficit involving multiple modalities and cognitive domains that depend on distributed cortical systems responsible for higher order abilities. Subsequent behavioral work revealed a related dissociation between concept formation and concept identification in autism suggesting the lack of an underlying organizational structure to manage increases in processing loads. The results of a recent study supported the impact of this relative weakness in conceptual reasoning on adaptive functioning in children and adults with autism. In this study, we provide further evidence of the difficulty relatively able older adolescents and adults with autism have with conceptual reasoning and provide evidence that this characterizes their difference from age- and ability-matched controls with typical development better than their differences in language. For verbal adults with autism, language may serve as a bootstrap or compensatory mechanism for learning but cannot overcome an inherent weakness in concept formation that makes information processing challenging as task demands increase.

Introduction: Scientific and technological areas include tuition based on highly visuo-spatial specialization and problem solving. Spatial skills and problem solving are embedded in a curriculum that promotes understanding of Science and technical subjects. These abilities are related to the development of executive functions (EFs). We aim to assess whether students who have studied Science and Technology branches in the High School present improved EFs involved in spatial reasoning and problem solving. Method: We assessed six different EFs in two groups of students: Science and Technology students (ST group) and students enrolled in the first course of Psychology whose pre-university studies were not oriented towards science and technology (No-ST group). The EFs tests that we applied in the ST and No-ST groups assessed spatial working memory, planning, inhibition, mental flexibility, verbal and abstract reasoning. Results: The study revealed that spatial working memory and planning were significantly better in the ST group comparing with the No-ST group. The No-ST group presented more impulsivity. There were no differences between the groups in the rest of EFs assessed. Conclusion: Pre-university studies that include Science and Technology subjects can influence EFs by improving planning and spatial working memory, as well as leading to less impulsivity.

Background: The primary objective of the current study was to examine the childhood predictors of adolescent reading comprehension in velo-cardio-facial syndrome (VCFS). Although much research has focused on mathematics skills among individuals with VCFS, no studies have examined predictors of reading comprehension. Methods: 69 late adolescents with VCFS, 23 siblings of youth with VCFS and 30 community controls participated in a longitudinal research project and had repeat neuropsychological test batteries and psychiatric evaluations every 3 years. The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-2nd edition (WIAT-II) Reading Comprehension subtest served as our primary outcome variable. Results: Consistent with previous research, children and adolescents with VCFS had mean reading comprehension scores on the WIAT-II, that were approximately two standard deviations below the mean and word reading scores approximately one standard deviation below the mean. A more novel finding is that relative to both control groups, individuals with VCFS demonstrated a longitudinal decline in reading comprehension abilities yet a slight increase in word reading abilities. In the combined control sample, WISC-III FSIQ, WIAT-II Word Reading, WISC-III Vocabulary and CVLT-C List A Trial 1 accounted for 75% of the variance in Time 3 WIAT-II Reading Comprehension scores. In the VCFS sample, WISC-III FSIQ, BASC-Teacher Aggression, CVLT-C Intrusions, Tower of London, Visual Span Backwards, WCST Non-perseverative Errors, WIAT-II Word Reading and WISC-III Freedom from Distractibility index accounted for 85% of the variance in Time 3 WIAT-II Reading Comprehension scores. A principal component analysis with promax rotation computed on the statistically significant Time 1 predictor variables in the VCFS sample resulted in three factors: Word reading decoding/Interference control, Self-Control/Self-Monitoring and Working Memory. Conclusions: Childhood predictors of late adolescent reading comprehension in VCFS differ in some meaningful ways from predictors in the non-VCFS population. These results offer some guidance for how best to consider intervention efforts to improve reading comprehension in the VCFS population.

This study investigated the involvement of inner speech limitations in the executive dysfunction associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Seventeen children with ASD and 18 controls, statistically-matched in age and IQ, performed a computer-based card sorting test (CST) to assess cognitive flexibility under four conditions: baseline, with articulatory suppression, with a concurrent mouthing task, and while verbalizing their strategies aloud. Articulatory suppression adversely affected CST performance for the control group but not the ASD group. The results additionally showed that overtly verbalizing strategies did not benefit the ASD children as it did the typically developing children. The findings thus provide further evidence that ASD children do not use inner speech to the same extent, or with the same effectiveness, as typically developing children when performing executive tasks.

Western culture admonishes that ''winners never quit,'' but sometimes the termination of a specific goal is the best choice for a student. Cognitive perseveration is commonly defined as one repeating an action after learning that it produces a poor outcome and may be considered a form of ''never quitting.'' This type of cognitive perseveration predicted poor academic performance in a group of male but not female undergraduates. The perseverative males repeated more courses, failed more courses, earned lower GPAs, and took longer to graduate than nonperseverating males and all females. We discuss the implications of distinguishing between productive persistence and self-defeating perseveration and the importance of advising students how to decide when persistence is not productive.

Adolescents with dyslexia exhibit well-established impairments in executive abilities. The Wisconsin card sorting test (WCST) is an executive test that yields surprisingly inconsistent results with this population. The current study aimed to shed light on the contradictory findings in the literature regarding the performance levels by individuals with dyslexia in WCST. We used a computerized-WCST (named the "Madrid-Card Sorting Test") assessing executive functions using the Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) methodology. Adolescents with dyslexia exhibited a higher error rate and slower reaction times. This was most evident in the later trials of the series. However, differences in ERPs between the two groups were found only in the "target-locked" conditions, where individuals with dyslexia displayed decreased ERP components (N100, P300) compared to skilled readers. The changes between the groups in the "shift" compared to the "stay" conditions suggest the central role of working memory both in basic (e.g., shifting) and higher order (e.g., reading) processes in individuals with dyslexia. These findings suggest the central role of working memory both in basic (e.g., shifting) and higher order (e.g., reading) processes in individuals with dyslexia. The intact shifting mechanism and the working memory deficit may guide the building of more efficient intervention programs for individuals with dyslexia in the future.

Empathy is an essential building block for successful interpersonal relationships. Atypical empathic development is implicated in a range of developmental psychopathologies. However, assessment of empathy in children is constrained by a lack of suitable measurement instruments. This article outlines the development of the Kids' Empathic Development Scale (KEDS) designed to assess some of the core affective, cognitive and behavioural components of empathy concurrently. The KEDS assesses responses to picture scenarios depicting a range of individual and interpersonal situations differing in social complexity. Results from 220 children indicate the KEDS measures three related but distinct aspects of empathy that are also related to existing measures of empathy and cognitive development. Scores on the KEDS show age and some gender-related differences in the expected direction. (Contains 1 figure and 8 tables.)

Background: The ability to generate and flexibly change concepts is of great importance for the development of academic and adaptive skills. This paper analyses the conceptual reasoning ability of children with mild intellectual disability (MID) by their achievements on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Method: The sample consisted of 95 children with MID aged between 10 years and 13 years 11 months. The following variables from the WCST were analysed: number of categories completed, initial conceptualisation, total number of errors, non-perseverative errors, perseverative errors, number of perseverative responses, and failures to maintain set. Results: The observed WCST predictive variables account for 79% of the variability in the number of categories completed (p less than 0.000). The total number of errors was the most significant predictor of performance on the WCST. Conclusion: We can conclude that there is a significant progress of conceptual abilities between the age of 13 years to 13 years 11 months, compared to other assessed age groups. The results of our research suggests that the development of mental set flexibility is the basis of progress in conceptual abilities, thus intervention programs should offer specially designed activities that vary in their attentional demands, content, conceptual patterns, and actions required.

Adults with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have shown deficits in switching between rules governing their behaviour, as have high-functioning children with ASD. However, there are few studies of flexibility in lower-functioning children with ASD. The current study investigated this phenomenon with a group of low-functioning children with ASD compared to a mental-age-matched comparison group. The ASD group learned an initial discrimination task as quickly as the matched comparison group, but when the rule governing the discrimination was shifted, the comparison group learned the task with fewer errors, and made the discrimination more quickly than the groups with ASD. These findings suggest that low-functioning children with ASD do display the predicted deficits in extra-dimensional shift. (Contains 1 table and 2 figures.)