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Communities in close proximity to protected areas suffer wildlife depredations which may engender negative attitudes to wildlife resulting in wildlife persecution. We assessed people's perceptions about the aardvark, a shy, nocturnal Afrotherian mammal prioritized for conservation. We used semi-structured questionnaires to conduct interviews with 181 persons (11 to > 70 years old) from randomly selected households. Respondents' perceptions of the aardvark were strongly positive (78%), because the animal does not cause physical harm to people, and flees upon sighting them. Aardvarks were hunted for meat (35%) and to obtain body parts for household use or sale to traditional healers. The positive perceptions about the animal are counteracted by the reputed tasty meat of the animal, which together with sale of its body parts have an overriding influence on animal abundance. We highlight the threats faced by aardvark due to its occurrence in close proximity to humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yak farming is the mainstays of nomadic herders' economy in Bhutan. However, it has declined over the years despite diverse government interventions. Rapid socio-economic development and access to economic opportunities further hindered yak farming culture rather than helping to maintain highlanders' livelihood. The study was carried out in four gewogs, Chhoekhor, Sephu, Merak and Sakteng, that depends on yaks for their living. Questionnaire based semi-structured interview was conducted to identify the main challenges and opportunities of yak herding within the different regions and examined the cost-benefit of herding yaks within the premises of nomadic herder's livelihood sustenance. The study revealed that yak farming generates sufficient income to support the herders' livelihood even though the profit margin was minimal. Around 90% of herders earned cash income from yaks. Dry cheese was the main revenue generator of Chhoekhor and Sephu, while fermented cheese earnt the highest income in Merak and Sephu. Yaks not only serve as the primary source of livelihood but also acts as a catalyst to generate additional income by gaining access to natural resources such as Cordyceps and herbal medicines. However, increased wildlife depredation on yaks and inadequate pastureland coupled with poor modern amenities threatened yak farming. The findings showed a declining trend in total yak population and number of yak-owning households particularly in Chhoekhor and Sephu compared to Merak and Sakteng. The future of yak farming in Bhutan is uncertain, but there is potential to address the challenges and ensure its continued importance to Bhutanese highlanders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community‐based conservation is a widely adopted wildlife governance approach, but questions remain about the conditions under which this form of wildlife governance achieves success. Particularly, participating communities are often marked by considerable wealth and risk heterogeneities that are driven by differences in livestock or agricultural holdings and varying exposure to wildlife depredation of those holdings.The effect of these types of heterogeneity on successful conservation collective action is understudied, particularly in the case of risk heterogeneity. This lacuna limits policymakers' ability to effectively match the design of community‐based programs to their particular settings.Using established behavioural experimental techniques, we model the incentive structures underlying community‐based wildlife conservation where actors differ in wealth and exposure to human–wildlife conflict. We conduct a modified binary linear voluntary contribution mechanism game, in which we vary subject endowments and risk of incurring a loss when participating in collective action and we find that the type of heterogeneity matters to collective action success.On their own, the presence of either economic or risk heterogeneities (but not both) dampen cooperation compared with homogeneous groups, as do 'balanced' distributions of both heterogeneities (where individuals facing high risk levels receive high endowments and vice versa). However, groups with 'unbalanced' heterogeneities (where those facing high risk levels receive low endowments and vice versa) demonstrate cooperation at similar levels to that of homogeneous groups.At the individual level, risk drives cooperative behaviour, although its impact is influenced by relative wealth levels when both forms of heterogeneity are present.These findings suggest the need for a more in‐depth look at the role and interaction of risk and wealth heterogeneities in conservation management. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livestock depredation is a major conservation challenge globally, causing significant economic losses to pastoralists and threatening large carnivore species outside protected areas. Our study investigated the temporal and spatial distribution of livestock depredation incidences, carnivore species associated with livestock depredation, and assessed mitigation measures in Maasai Mara Conservancies in Southern Kenya. Using daily monitoring of livestock depredation cases, we made comparisons between livestock attacks occurring in predator-proof bomas and those with traditional kraals. A total of 305 livestock depredation incidents were recorded between January and December 2021, translating to a total tally of 1411 livestock maimed or killed. Most livestock depredation incidents occurred during the day (59%) as opposed to night (41%), but this difference was not significant. Livestock depredation incidents in the nighttime occurred mostly inside traditional kraals (34%) and occurred the least in predator-proof kraals (2%). Lions were responsible for more livestock attacks in the grazing fields compared with leopards, hyenas, and wild dogs. Hyenas were more daring and attacked livestock inside traditional bomas relative to lions and leopards. Our study concludes that predator-proof bomas are more effective in minimizing livestock depredation and can be embraced as a sound intervention for human–carnivore co-existence in communities' wildlife conservation areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural commodity production constitutes an important livelihood source for farmers but significantly contributes to tropical deforestation and biodiversity loss. While the socioecological effects of agricultural commodities such as palm oil, cocoa and coffee are well studied, the effects for commodities such as cashew (Anacardium occidentale) have received less attention. Global cultivated area for cashew increased rapidly from 526,250 ha in 1980 to ~5.9 million ha in 2018. India is the world's second largest cashew producer, with cashew farms often occurring adjacent to remnant forests. To mitigate deforestation for cashew expansion, it is necessary to understand present-day land use policies and management practices that drive this expansion. Through semi-structured interviews (n = 65) and a literature review on agricultural policies in India, we evaluated the role of state-led land use policies in cashew expansion and characterised present-day cashew farming systems in the Sawantwadi-Dodamarg landscape in India. Agricultural subsidies introduced from 1980s to 1990s encouraged cultivar cashew expansion and influenced land use conversion from rice and privately owned forest to cashew. Farmers preferred cultivar cashew as they produced higher yields faster, although they required more agrochemical inputs and were susceptible to pests and wildlife depredation. About 80% of farmers had planted cashew farms by clearing forests in the past 30 years and expressed interest to continue the same. Farmers avoided applying for government-sponsored compensation for crop losses due to wildlife depredation and chose instead to expand cultivar cashew into forested areas. Our study deepens the understanding of how government-led agricultural subsidies drive farmers' uptake of cashew cultivars, farmers' cashew management practices, and how these factors drive deforestation in this landscape at the state and farm level. We recommend further research with equitable stakeholder participation in cashew farming systems to devise sound planning for forest conservation and sustainability standards for the cashew industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feeding ecology of carnivores is integral to understanding their role in the ecosystem and the effect they have on their prey species. This study aims to better our understanding of Black-backed jackal feeding ecology in a fairly natural ecosystem, to contribute towards more informed depredation management in surrounding agri-ecosystems. Scat analysis was used to investigate the diet of Black-backed jackal inside a 5590 ha formal protected area, namely Maria Moroka Nature Reserve, which is surrounded by cattle and small stock farms. The six main prey groups identified from 334 scats were mice, springhare, antelope (c. 98% Springbok), hare, small carnivores and fruit. Rodents (mice mean monthly percentage occurrence 36%, springhare 31%) were utilized the most frequently, followed by antelope (Springbok 22% Occ; Blesbok 0.51%). The next most used prey group was small carnivores, present in 8% of scats. Hares and fruit, but also birds and invertebrates, were taken sporadically. No stock remains were found in the scats. Very similar results were obtained when volumetric contributions were calculated, resulting in mice (mean monthly contribution = 33% Vol; Importance Value, IV = 15.2), springhare (30% Vol; IV = 11.9) and antelope (24% Vol; IV = 10.0) being the most important prey items. Small carnivores (8% Vol) had an Importance Value of 1.2, and all other prey groups scored less than 0.4 IV. The wide variety of prey used, together with their monthly fluctuations (which for some groups could be coupled to availability) and prey switching between the three most important prey items mice, springhare and antelope, support opportunistic feeding behaviour by Black-backed jackal in the study area. The results also confirmed that Black-backed jackal does utilize Springbok as a major food source, and that this usage peaked during the two periods when Springbok lamb at Maria Moroka Nature Reserve. These periods do not only coincide with the Black-backed jackal pupping and dispersal seasons, but also with the two sheep lambing seasons in the central and southern Free State Province. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa has a long record of depredation. Since 2004, renewed awareness of this conundrum has markedly increased. The question arose as to what was learnt from historic management efforts, and how farmers, managers and conservation officials can best include it in management programs. Historical reports of two government-subsidised hunt clubs that operated in the Mossel Bay district of South Africa during the late 1970s to early 1990s were analysed to determine their contribution in managing the effects of specific predators on small livestock. District-level and farm-level analyses highlighted the value of such data in depicting the extent and distribution of predation and predator control and the role of government as an authoritative body to coordinate predation management and research efforts. However, the format of hunt reports, inaccurate or incomplete data recorded by hunters and untraceable hunt reports did not provide a clear understanding of predation and predator control relationships and patterns. Detailed data will enable meaningful analyses on predation management, such as cause-and-effects of predation incidences and predator control. Detailed spatiotemporal information on each predation incident and predator control activity, background information on club membership, the extent to which farmers depended on technical aid from the clubs, as well as physical and managerial aspects of each farm, may aid in interpreting the effect of predators on livestock. It may also aid in determining the effect of different control methods and management practices on predators and future predation, as well as factors which may influence these effects. Although information from the reports investigated was, therefore, not as useful for management purposes, it illustrated the potential value of the well-coordinated collection of standardised data for research on a local, regional, and national level. However, a framework needs to be developed that should be informed by multi- and interdisciplinary research approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human-predator conflicts are frequently caused by livestock and/or game depredation. The golden jackal's (Canis aureus) range expansion in Europe, as well as the recent re-expansion of several gray wolf (Canis lupus) populations, might increase risk of such conflicts. In Austria, golden jackal presence has been increasing since the 1990s including reports of wildlife and livestock kills, frequently occurring in the provinces Styria and Burgenland. We developed a rapid, two-step genetic screening protocol to (1) detect canid mtDNA from non-invasively collected samples like swabs from kills using diagnostic PCRs, and (2) assign this DNA to red fox (Vulpes vulpes), golden jackal, or gray wolf/dog. To monitor golden jackal presence in the region, a total of 167 signs of presence were collected over a period of 30 months throughout the Styrian province. Among these, 14 non-invasive genetic samples (13 swabs from kill sites and one scat) were screened with the developed protocol. Four of these samples revealed golden jackal mtDNA and six samples red fox mtDNA. The developed genetic screening protocol represents a quick and inexpensive method to assess canid presence, e.g., at kill sites, and therefore possesses high value for the conservation and wildlife management community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural gas compressor stations emit loud, low-frequency noise that travels hundreds of meters into undisturbed habitat. We used experimental playback of natural gas compressor noise to determine whether and how noise influenced settlement decisions and reproductive output as well as when in the nesting cycle birds were most affected by compressor noise. We established 80 nest boxes to attract Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia sialis) and Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) to locations where they had not previously nested and experimentally introduced shale gas compressor noise to half the boxes while the other 40 boxes served as controls. Our experimental design allowed us to control for the confounding effects of both physical changes to the environment associated with compressor stations as well as site tenacity or the tendency for birds to return to the specific locations where they had previously bred. We incorporated behavioral observations with video cameras placed within boxes to determine how changes in behavior might lead to any noted changes in fitness. Neither species demonstrated a preference for box type (quiet or noisy), and there was no difference in clutch size between box types. In both species, we observed a reduction in incubation time, hatching success, and fledging success (proportion of all eggs that fledged) between quiet and noisy boxes but no difference in provisioning rates. Nest success (probability of fledging at least one young; calculated from all nests that were initiated) was not affected by noise in either species suggesting that noise did not increase rates of either depredation or abandonment but instead negatively impacted fitness through reduced hatching and fledging success. Compressor noise caused behavioral changes that led to reduced reproductive success; for Eastern Bluebirds and Tree Swallows, gas infrastructure can create an equal-preference ecological trap where birds do not distinguish between lower and higher quality territories even when they incur fitness costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Kazavango‐Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area is home to the largest remaining elephant population in Africa but is also the site of high levels of human‐elephant conflict through crop depredation. Offsetting the costs of coexisting with elephants in this area is critical to incentivizing elephant conservation within community‐based conservation (CBC) areas, and trophy hunting has long been touted as a method for generating revenue for communities from wildlife. However, the idea that sustainable elephant hunting can offset the costs of crop depredation remains largely untested. We combined household survey data, financial records, and elephant population data to compare the potential benefits of sustainable hunting with the costs of crop depredation in a CBC area in northeastern Namibia. We determined that sustainable trophy hunting only returns ~30% of the value of crops lost to the community and cannot alone offset the current costs of coexistence with elephants. As core institutions supporting the practice of conservation, CBC efforts must promote community management capacity to combine multiple wildlife‐based income streams and build partnerships at multiple scales of governance to address the challenges of elephant management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conflict of large carnivores and agro‐pastoral communities is a key driver of carnivore decline globally. The East African state of Uganda relies heavily on tourism as a GDP contributor and large carnivores are important for generating visitor revenue in its national parks. African leopards, spotted hyenas and African lions are three species that draw significant tourist attention but also cause damage to the livestock of human communities living on Ugandan national park edges. A private safari lodge in the Lake Mburo National Park has been using a financial compensation scheme in an attempt to stem conflict between these species and human communities living in the region since 2009. Financial compensations have produced mixed results with some studies reporting successes in reducing carnivore deaths, while others warn against their use, citing moral hazard, financial unsustainability and weakened protection of livestock by farmers. We sought to assess the characteristics of this compensation scheme and the patterns of conflict between Bahima pastoralist communities and carnivores that the scheme aims to mitigate. Using a dataset of 1,102 leopard and hyena depredation events (January 2009–December 2018) we found that spotted hyenas were responsible for the overwhelming majority of livestock depredation (69%) around Lake Mburo. Depredations occurred mostly at night (97% and 89% of all depredation for spotted hyenas and leopards respectively) and inside livestock protective pens (bomas). Depredation was more likely to occur in rugged areas, closer to human settlements, and the national park border, and further away from water. We could find no evidence of seasonality in depredation events. Our most important, albeit worrying result was that conflict had increased dramatically over time and the number of depredation claims had tripled in the period from 2014–2018 when compared to 2009–2013, risking financial unsustainability of the scheme. Our results are important for future conservation stakeholders attempting to implement financial compensation in the broader Ugandan landscape. They suggest that careful thought needs to be placed into fund sustainability, increasing claims over time and the development of clear rules that underpin compensation claims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interactions between humans and wildlife resulting in negative impacts are among the most pressing conservation challenges globally. In regions of smallholder livestock and crop production, interactions with wildlife can compromise human well‐being and motivate negative sentiment and retaliation toward wildlife, undermining conservation goals. Although impacts may be unavoidable when human and wildlife land use overlap, scant large‐scale human data exist quantifying the direct costs of wildlife to livelihoods. In a landscape of global importance for wildlife conservation in southern Africa, we quantified costs for people living with wildlife through a fundamental measure of human well‐being, food security, and we tested whether existing livelihood strategies buffer certain households against crop depredation by wildlife, predominantly elephants. To do this, we estimated Bayesian multilevel statistical models based on multicounty household data (n = 711) and interpreted model results in the context of spatial data from participatory land‐use mapping. Reported crop depredation by wildlife was widespread. Over half of the sample households were affected and household food security was reduced significantly (odds ratio 0.37 [0.22, 0.63]). The most food insecure households relied on gathered food sources and welfare programs. In the event of crop depredation by wildlife, these 2 livelihood sources buffered or reduced harmful effects of depredation. The presence of buffering strategies suggests a targeted compensation strategy could benefit the region's most vulnerable people. Such strategies should be combined with dynamic and spatially explicit land‐use planning that may reduce the frequency of negative human–wildlife impacts. Quantifying and mitigating the human costs from wildlife are necessary steps in working toward human–wildlife coexistence. Article Impact statement: Multicounty household data show livelihood costs from wildlife crop depredation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Himalayan wolf Canis sp. and snow leopard Panthera uncia are found in the Nepalese Himalayas where conservation efforts target the latter but not the former. We conducted semistructured questionnaire surveys of 71 residents in upper Humla, upper Dolpa, and Kanchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA) during 2014–2016 to understand people's knowledge, perceptions, attitudes and interactions with these two carnivores. We fitted a cumulative link mixed model to predict Likert scale ordinal responses from a series of Generalized Linear Mixed Models. Overall, attitudes were more positive toward snow leopards than wolves. Livestock depredation was the main predictor of the general negative attitude toward wolves (Estimate = −1.30873; p =.029866) but there was no evidence for an effect for snow leopards (Estimate = −0.3640; p =.631446). Agropastoralists had more negative attitudes than respondents with other occupations toward both carnivores and men had more positive attitudes than women. Among our study areas, respondents in the community‐owned KCA had the most positive attitudes. Our findings illustrate the need to reduce human–carnivore conflict through a combined approach of education, mitigation, and economic cost‐sharing with respectful engagement of local communities. Specifically, to encourage more villagers to participate in livestock insurance schemes, they should be improved by including all large carnivores and adjusting compensation to the market value of a young replacement of the depredated livestock type. Carnivore conservation interventions should target the whole predator guild to achieve long‐term success and to protect the Himalayan ecosystem at large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a major challenge for conservation biologists worldwide. To counter negative attitudes of people towards wildlife species, government agencies or non-governmental organizations (NGOs) frequently provide monetary compensation for losses due to crop damage or livestock depredation by wildlife. While much has been written about the challenges of using compensation schemes as a wildlife conservation tool, there has been little investigation into alternative potential benefits of compensation records. We suggest that compensation records can be used to obtain a summary overview of wildlife conflict instances that occur in a region and thereby provide an understanding of the distribution of HWC across a landscape. Further, these records provide insights on the economic prioritization given to each of the species involved in HWC and the kind of damage they cause. We tested this premise through a case study of human-elephant conflict (HEC) in districts of Kerala in southern India using state government-maintained compensation records. To this end, we constructed a conflict index and found Wayanad, Palakkad, and Kannur to be the districts most affected by HEC. An overall distribution map of HEC in any region is crucial to formulating mitigation policies for conflict management. Findings from our study, based on the compensation records, present a holistic view of conflict occurrences in Kerala and thus provide data that can be used to develop basic management strategies for HEC in the state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human-wildlife conflicts occur when wildlife has an adverse effect on human activities (e.g., predation of livestock, crop raiding). These conflicts are increasing, particularly in areas surrounding natural protected areas, where villagers engage in subsistence agriculture. Crop damage may cause farmers to retaliate and harm wildlife species considered responsible for the damage. Among the factors that determine the intensity of the conflict are the frequency of the damage and the amount of biomass consumed relative to the perceptions, values, and cultural history of the farmers affected. To better understand the conflicts between farmers and wildlife, we compared farmer perceptions of wildlife damage to corn (Zea mays) to damage estimates recorded from May to June 2016 in 2 communities located in southern Mexico adjacent to the Natural Protected Area of Agua Blanca. We identified 128 farmers who had reported previous damage and used an administered structured questionnaire to assess their perceptions of the magnitude of the damage. Over 70% of the farmers surveyed considered that wildlife incursions in crops are a problem and 18% of them had implemented hunting and poisoning as a control measure. Farmers attributed their losses mainly to whitenosed coati (Nasua narica) and northern raccoon (Procyon lotor). However, our field data indicated that birds were causing more damage. On average, each corn crop lost $30.80; this value may be considered low, but the farmers' dependence on the harvest they obtain from their crops causes these losses, added to those they already have due to other causes (i.e., long droughts, insect pests, and fungus), which impact their bottom line. Wildlife crop depredation is not the main cause of economic loss, but its impact negatively influences the perception of some farmers on wildlife. A poor perception in farmers could lead to an increase in the use of lethal methods, which may also affect nontargets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interactions between cetaceans and fisheries are probably as old as the fishing profession itself (Bearzi., 2002). Harvesting activities, in agriculture as well as fisheries, nowadays are victims of depredation committed mainly by ungulates, and odontocetes which can lead to serious environmental, social and economic problems among farmers and fishermen (Snape et al., 2018). Here we provide an overview of depredations conflicts all over the world and of European regulation and financial instruments to compensate for damage caused by protected animals. We define a comprehensive and detailed outline of the state of regulation, and the constraints and opportunities of harvesting activities at local, regional and national level, focusing on cases of conflict with wild fauna. Through a structured investigation, we explore the small-scale fishing fleet of eastern Sicily, where a traditional and multipurpose fishery is threatened by a high rate of cetacean-fishery interaction, requiring urgent mitigation action. We hope this research is a starting point for recommendations for better, more sustainable management of conflicts between wildlife conservation and fisheries practices, and for implementing strategies aimed at reducing loss due to cetacean interference on fisheries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human-wildlife conflicts are increasing globally, especially involving livestock depredation by carnivores. To understand the relationship between predation frequency and attitudes toward predators, researchers quantified livestock losses for four carnivore species—African wild dog, spotted hyena, leopard, and lion—as well as attitudes toward these carnivores in Westgate Community Conservancy, Samburu, Kenya. Methods included a three-year data collection period of conflict incidents followed by structured interviews to assess community attitudes. Results demonstrated that livestock depredation mainly involved leopards and spotted hyenas, preying most often on sheep and goats. Attitudes toward lions and hyenas were generally proportionate to their predation involvement. However, the frequency of predation did not always elicit such an expected response, as community members held positive attitudes toward leopards despite their high involvement in conflict, but disliked African wild dogs regardless of their low involvement. The discrepancy in attitudes could be attributed to cultural values, economic losses, and perceived risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hemis National Park of the Trans-Himalayas is home to a large population of the snow leopard Panthera uncia and increasing numbers of agro-pastoralists. To persist in this harsh terrain, farmers have to either farm livestock or hunt free-ranging, native ungulates. The availability of more livestock and fewer natural prey created a dynamic whereby snow leopards depredated livestock, followed by retaliatory killing of snow leopards. In 1992, to assist farmers and wildlife, the government enacted a cost-compensation scheme. Following a decade with marginally fewer depredation events, in 2002, two additional strategies were implemented: predator-proof holding pens and the Himalayan Homestay Programme. We assessed 22 years (1992–2013) of depredation data, comparing the periods before and after the additional initiatives. Government records showed that during 1992–2013, 1,624 livestock were depredated from 339 sites, with c. USD 15,000 paid as compensation. There were significantly more kills annually before (a mean of 41) than after (3.5) the initiatives, and mass killings (≥ 5 animals killed per attack) were significantly reduced from 5.5 to 0.5 events per year. Goats and sheep (57%) and horses (13%) comprised the majority of losses. The marked reduction in depredation occurred whilst regulations against hunting were being enforced, probably resulting in an increase in the number of wild prey as alternative food. We conclude that together, cost-compensation, tighter hunting regulations, improved holding pens and the Homestay Programme helped support the well-being of the community while aiding conservation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human population increase, expansion of anthropogenic activities and the subsequent decline of wildlife habitats have resulted in constant overlaps in the needs of people and wildlife, resulting in human–wildlife conflict. One of the key drivers of human–wildlife conflict is livestock depredation by carnivores. Most studies on human–wildlife conflict have been conducted in communal areas adjacent to protected areas; however, little has been done in communities far from protected areas. To understand the environmental correlates of livestock depredation events in a communal landscape far from protected areas, we used maximum entropy modelling to predict occurrence of spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) kill sites using distance from hills, homesteads, roads and tracks, streams and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). In addition, we investigated the livestock herding and kraaling practices of rural households in Nyamandi Communal Area, Zimbabwe. Distance to nearest homestead was the most important environmental correlate of kill site occurrence (85.8%), as more kills occurred nearer to homesteads. More households herded livestock in the wet than in the dry season, but interestingly, significantly more attacks occurred in the wet season than in the dry season (p < 0.05). We conclude that distance from homesteads is the most important correlate in the prediction of livestock depredation in this communal landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nest loss due to depredation or mortality of nesting females is a primary factor limiting Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) population growth. As such, significant research has focused on identifying nest site characteristics influencing success. While evaluations of factors driving nest success and predation are common, to our knowledge few events of female perseverance leading to nest success have been identified. During a study on reproductive ecology of Gould’s Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo mexicana) in Arizona, we observed nesting perseverance of a female Gould’s Wild Turkey under multiple, repeated predation threats (known nest predators within 2 m of nest site). The female had 7 uniquely identifiable interactions on incubation days 10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, and 25 with black bears (Ursus americanus), gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and white-nosed coatis (Nasua narica), as well as >10 interactions with an Arizona gray squirrel (Sciurus arizonensis). However, the female continued to incubate and successfully hatched the full clutch on 6 August 2017. Our observations suggest that close proximity of known nest predators may not always lead to nest loss, and that individual female responses may vary extensively and contribute to nest success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several anecdotes exist of wading birds depredating invasive Monopterus albus (Asian Swamp Eel) in waterways of the conterminous US. We present photographic evidence of 4 different wading bird species depredating adult Asian Swamp Eels in Georgia and Florida herein. Photographs taken by wildlife enthusiasts could provide a means for early detection of the Asian Swamp Eel and other aquatic species that are challenging to detect in waterways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Surplus killing (i.e. predation in which predators kill more prey than necessary to satiate their hunger) appears to be widespread in carnivores and has the potential to exacerbate human–carnivore conflict. Nevertheless, little is known about the frequency of surplus killing or about its impact on livestock. We review the information available on surplus killing by pumas Puma concolor and use data from central Argentina to quantify its impact on ranching and to analyse both its causes and its implications for puma–human conflicts. We reviewed 73 publications and found nine mentions of surplus killing events from six countries. The sheep was by far the most commonly affected livestock species. In central Argentina, surplus killing was reported by 25–33% of the ranchers. In this region, the number of livestock killed during each event ranged from seven to 160 (median = 23) for the literature reports and from two to 70 (median = 7) in the records we personally collated. The number of individual animals killed per event was greater for interview‐based second‐hand reports than for first‐hand reports and verified events. Our results indicate that although surplus killing by pumas is uncommonly reported in the literature, it may be locally recurrent. Although surplus killing may be overestimated in interview‐based reports, it can produce significant losses for sheep and goat ranchers, may strongly exacerbate puma–human conflicts, and should be considered in puma–human conflict mitigation strategies. Ranchers typically attributed surplus killing to female pumas teaching kittens to hunt. However, there is little evidence supporting this interpretation. Surplus killing by pumas may be more likely to occur in situations where the predator's ‘normal’ hunting sequence is disrupted by the accessibility of large numbers of easy prey. Confinement, stormy weather and poor antipredator behaviour may favour the occurrence of surplus killing events on livestock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cetacean-fishery interactions are a recurring problem. These interactions are conflict prone, especially between fishers and those seeking marine mammal conservation. In the southwestern Gulf of Mexico, a large fleet of artisanal fisheries operates using a range of different techniques. We recorded 90 fishing operations in two different fishing areas of Veracruz, Mexico, between 2009-2010 and 2014-2015, assessing whether dolphin interaction negatively affects fish catch and fish gear. These potential impacts were evaluated using three generalized linear models (GLMs) hypothesizing that (1) depredation decreases catch per unit effort (CPUE), (2) the predator presence modifies catch composition, and (3) prey species presence increases the likelihood of depredation. Of the gillnet hauls analyzed, 27 were subject to depredation by bottlenose dolphins, despite conditions and fishing methods varying among sites. Higher CPUE attracts larger pods, but a negative effect by depredation was not detected. We also found that depredation probability increased when there were higher capture volumes, when mackerels and jacks were present, and when operations were most southwesterly. Despite the short distance (< 80 km) between sites, we found that bottlenose dolphins on each site displayed different feeding behaviors towards fishing nets. Regarding conservation, bycatch caused by dolphins does not seem to be problematic. In fact, the increase in boat traffic and declining prey abundances due to overfishing could be the main causes of fishers' economic loss. Dolphin-fishery interactions may not represent an actual challenge for marine conservation managers, but stakeholders, fisheries, and governmental institutions should be aware that diminishing returns due to overfishing could exacerbate the apparently false notion of dolphins competing for the fish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In agriculturally dependent regions interspersed with wildlands, crop damage and livestock depredation by wildlife threatens rural livelihoods and undermines conservation efforts. Determining the species, human activities and landscape features correlated with losses to wildlife is critical for developing effective mitigation approaches. To better understand drivers of wildlife damage, we surveyed 419 households in the western Serengeti of Tanzania about agricultural practices and wildlife-induced losses. Using a causal inference framework and hierarchical Bayesian models, we assessed the influence of environmental and household characteristics on damage by different wildlife species. Crop loss to elephant was the most widespread form of damage; crop loss to baboon and vervet monkey was less common. Livestock depredation by hyena was widespread and common, while depredation by lion was rare and localized. The majority of respondents perceived wildlife as the greatest threat to crop production, whereas reproductive efficiency and environmental factors were seen as greater threats than wildlife to livestock. The risk of crop and livestock damage was consistently and negatively associated with human disturbance, and positively associated with farm and herd size. The influence of other factors, including woody cover, slope, and proximity to settlements varied across forms of damage and species. Our findings suggest that land use planning may be a generalizable approach to reducing wildlife damage, but variability in the drivers, extent, conservation status, and tolerance for losses indicate that species-specific mitigation strategies are required. Multi-species assessments offer broad insights into human-wildlife interactions and can aid in the identification and prioritization of mitigation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris) have cohabited with humans in India for centuries. However, with increasing human populations, human-tiger conflicts (HTC) have increased. Impacts of such conflicts are loss of human life, livestock depredations, and retaliatory killings of tigers. Considering that tiger populations are in decline throughout their range, accurate information regarding the magnitude of the impacts of HTC is needed for tiger conservation. We analyzed livestock depredation data collected over 3 years (April 2008 to March 2011) from villages near the Kaziranga Tiger Reserve (KTR) to determine impacts of HTC. During the study period, we documented 518 livestock depredations by tigers. Cattle (Bos taurus) were the primary livestock depredated, with a mean loss of 1.2 livestock head per year per household. Livestock depredation was highest in winter (χ2 = 74.2, df = 3, P < 0.05) and occurred mostly at night (χ2 = 44.9, df = 3, P < 0.05). The average interim relief amount paid per depredation was US$27.78, whereas the average interim relief amount paid per year was US$4,726.44. We discuss the significance of our findings for mitigating livestock losses by tigers through improved livestock management and the formation of a core team to oversee conflicts and to implement education programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Predation on livestock is one of the primary concerns for Mexican wolf ( Canis lupus baileyi ) recovery because it causes economic losses and negative attitudes toward wolves. Our objectives were to develop a spatial risk model of cattle depredation by Mexican wolves in the USA portion of their recovery area to help reduce the potential for future depredations. Location Arizona and New Mexico, USA. Methods We used a presence-only maximum entropy modeling approach (Maxent) to develop a risk model based on confirmed depredation incidents on public lands. In addition to landscape and human variables, we developed a model for annual livestock density using linear regression analysis of Animal Unit Month (AUM), and models for abundance of elk ( Cervus canadensis ), mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) and white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginiana ) using Maxent, to include them as biotic variables in the risk model. We followed current recommendations for controlling model complexity and other sources of bias. Results The primary factors associated with increased risk of depredation by Mexican wolf were higher canopy cover variation and higher relative abundance of elk. Additional factors with increased risk but smaller effect were gentle and open terrain, and greater distances from roads and developed areas. Main conclusions The risk map revealed areas with relatively high potential for cattle depredations that can inform future expansion of Mexican wolf distribution (e.g., by avoiding hotspots) and prioritize areas for depredation risk mitigation including the implementation of active non-lethal methods in depredation hotspots. We suggest that livestock be better protected in or moved from potential hotspots, especially during periods when they are vulnerable to depredation (e.g. calving season). Our approach to create natural prey and livestock abundance variables can facilitate the process of spatial risk modeling when limitations in availability of abundance data are a challenge, especially in large-scale studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pomacea maculata (Giant Apple Snail) is a freshwater snail from South America that is an invasive species on the Gulf of Mexico coastal plain. A sister species has been shown to prey on amphibian eggs in Asia. To test whether the Giant Apple Snail will prey on amphibian eggs, we presented eggs of Lithobates palustris (Pickerel Frog), Lithobates pipiens (Northern Leopard Frog), and Anaxyrus americanus (American Toad) to Giant Apple Snails in a laboratory experiment. Giant Apple Snails ate the eggs of all 3 species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Minimizing wolf-livestock conflicts requires identifying conditions placing livestock at risk and focusing adaptive management at a local scale. Gray wolves Canis lupus began recolonizing Washington in 2008. We used generalized linear mixed models to investigate characteristics of wolf pack territories in Idaho and Montana from 1991–2008 (n = 137) and predict cattle Bos taurus depredation risk for current and probable wolf-occupied areas in Washington. Cattle depredation risk increased with cattle abundance and if the pack depredated cattle the previous year. When models were applied to wolf pack territories in Washington from 2008–2016 (n = 43), 3 of 7 (43%) depredating pack territory/years were predicted at ≥61% depredation risk. During the summer grazing season (1 May – 31 October) when most cattle depredations (97%; n = 34) occurred in Washington, cattle east of the Cascade Mountains were often on grazing allotments whereas cattle west of the Cascade Mountains were located on small, private farms. Thus, relative cattle abundance per grazing allotment and county likely represented cattle depredation risk east and west of the Cascade Mountains, respectively. County-wide and allotment cattle abundance forecasted 10.3% and 1.4% of probable wolf-occupied areas at ≥ 61% cattle depredation risk, respectively. These risk models and maps provide locations for federal and state wildlife managers to focus depredation prevention measures and a template for future analyses as wolves continue to recolonize Washington. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Depredation plays an important role in determining duck nest success and predator and female duck behavior during nest depredation can influence nest fate. We examined depredation of mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and gadwall (A. strepera) nests in Suisun Marsh, California, USA, in 2015–2016 with continuous infrared video monitoring to identify nest predators and characterize predator and female duck behavior during depredation events. We recorded predators at 44% of 147 nests monitored. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) were the most frequent predator observed at nests (40% of nests visited and 53% of depredated eggs) followed by striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis; 27% and 27%), coyotes (Canis latrans; 4% and 9%), common ravens (Corvus corax; 4% and 9%), gopher snakes (Pituophis catenifer catenifer; 19% and 0%), and western yellow‐bellied racers (Coluber constrictor mormon; 1% and 0%). The number of eggs depredated per depredation bout varied among predators (raccoons: 7.3 eggs; skunks: 2.5; coyotes: 7.4; ravens: 7.7; and snakes: 0.0). Mammal depredation occurred between 1600 and 0400, whereas snakes and ravens were observed at nests during the day (snakes: 1000–2100; ravens: 1700). Females flushed from nests immediately before predator arrival ( x ¯ = 29.0 ± 16.6 [SD] sec), and this timing did not vary among predators. However, the length of nest depredation bouts varied among predators. Nest visits by gopher snakes were longer (18.6 ± 19.4 min) than depredation bouts by other predators (12.3 ± 10.7 min), but snakes did not successfully consume any eggs. Females took more time to return to nests when nests were depredated by raccoons (239 ± 137 min), whereas females returned more quickly when nests were visited by skunks (81 ± 163 min) or gopher snakes (15 ± 128 min). Partial clutch depredation occurred at 15% of depredated nests, but only 23% of partially depredated nests successfully hatched ≥1 egg. Our results indicate that predator type and behavior can influence female behavior and nest fate, and that management actions that reduce the effectiveness of raccoons and skunks encountering waterfowl nests may benefit these nesting populations. Published 2018. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Fine‐scale knowledge of how anthropogenic effects may alter habitat selection by wolves (Canis lupus) is important to inform conservation management, especially where wolf populations are expanding into more populated areas or where human activity and development are increasingly encroaching on formerly pristine environments. From 1999 to 2003, we documented rendezvous sites (n = 31) used by wolves (n = 6 packs) in a previously unstudied wolf population in the southern Apennines, Italy (Pollino National Park [PNP]), where conditions are ideal to unveil behavioral adaptations of wolves living in human‐dominated landscapes. We adopted a hierarchical, multi‐scale habitat selection approach by using a set of environmental, topographic, and anthropogenic factors within multi‐grain resource selection functions (MRSFs) at the landscape and the territory extent. Habitat selection by wolves was scale‐dependent and different habitat components affected wolves at different grains. When establishing a territory at the landscape scale, wolves avoided areas featuring high densities of humans, paved roads, and trails, and they preferentially located territories where higher forest cover and rough terrain enhanced concealment and ensured reduced accessibility by humans. Concurrently, wolves also selected open areas and, at coarse grain, areas of high density of dirt roads and trails to enhance hunting and traveling efficiency. When selecting rendezvous sites within territories, wolves still selected for forest cover and lessened avoidance of anthropogenic features apparent at the lower order of selection. When choosing rendezvous sites, wolves also avoided low‐use anthropogenic linear features and rough terrain, unveiling trade‐offs in selection decisions across different spatial and temporal scales. Our results reinforce the notion that occurrence of wolves in human‐modified landscapes is shaped by avoidance of anthropogenic pressure, but they also indicate that rendezvous site selection by wolves conform to a hierarchical decision‐making process that is extent‐ and grain‐dependent. Spatially explicit models of rendezvous site selection such as the one we developed for PNP enhance management effectiveness for strategies such as regulating human access and activity during the pup rearing seasons, preventing human persecution, mitigating livestock depredations, and designing cost‐effective monitoring programs. © 2018 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human-wildlife conflicts are a growing problem in Iran and pose a notable challenge to conservation efforts in its Hyrcanian forest region. We surveyed 162 households in 45 villages at six study sites to understand species-specific patterns of human-wildlife conflicts and people’s reactions to these conflicts, and to suggest appropriate conflict mitigation measures. By using generalized linear and generalized linear mixed models, we analysed socio-economic and ecological variables to find key determinants of the main conflict types around seven species of mammals. We also incorporated prey richness data (i.e. red deer, roe deer and wild boar) in our models. Wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) and grey wolf ( Canis lupus) were found to be the primary conflict species in regard to reported levels of severity and crop loss by wild boars was reported by 97% of households. Logistic regression showed that these conflicts were positively influenced by the variety of cultivated crop species and the size of land under cultivation. Generalized linear mixed models showed that human-wild boar conflicts increased in areas with lower human density, vegetation cover and distance to protected areas. Wolf conflicts were most frequent in the form of sheep attacks (81%) compared to goat (11%) and cattle (8%) attacks. Our analysis showed that the attacks were positively influenced by village and elevation and increased in areas with lower prey richness and those located closer to, or inside, protected areas. Several cost-effective mitigation measures should be used complementarily according to their effectiveness. These include avoiding planting of palatable seasonal crops near protected areas and establishing physical barriers around crop fields to lower large-scale crop damage by wild boars. To reduce livestock predation by wolf, it will be essential to address the restoration of the wild prey community and efficiency of animal husbandry practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India with estimated more than 2000 tigers (across 18 states) accounts for more than half of the remaining tigers across its range countries. Long-term conservation requires measures to protect the large carnivores and its prey base beyond the Protect Areas. The Corbett Tiger Reserve (CTR) and adjoining forest divisions with high density of tigers play a crucial role in conservation of tiger in Uttarakhand state as well as the Terai-Arc Landscape. However, CTR is surrounded with multiple-use forest (forest divisions), agriculture land, human habitation, townships and developmental projects. The movement of large carnivores and other wildlife through such habitats adds to the chances of human-wildlife conflict. The aim of the current study was to understand the patterns of livestock depredation by tigers and leopards in and around CTR. We examined a total of 8365 incidents of livestock depredation between 2006 and 2015 with tigers killing more livestock in a year (573.3±41.2) than leopards (263.2±9.9). Geographically, in north zone of CTR leopards were the major livestock predator (166.6±11), whereas tigers (547.7±40.1) in south zone. Examination of livestock kills indicated cows (75%) as the main victim, followed by buffaloes and other species. Analysis revealed that the livestock depredation by tigers varied significantly among seasons in south zone but not in north zone. However, such an explicit seasonal variation was not observed for leopards in north and south zone of CTR. Hotspots of livestock predation were identified around CTR. Addressing a conflict situation in a time-bound manner, timely disbursement of ex-gratia payment, involving locals at various tourism related activities and consistent rapport building initiatives are required to mitigate the human-wildlife conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Human tolerance for negative interactions with the Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) is an important component of panther conservation efforts. Residents’ tolerance for interactions with Florida panthers in exurban areas has not been explicitly studied, even though the highest number of documented human‐panther interactions has occurred in a single exurban community in Florida (i.e., Golden Gate Estates). We implemented a mail‐based survey in Golden Gate Estates in 2015 to investigate community members’ level of tolerance for the panther. Golden Gate Estates provides a case study for future conservation efforts as panthers recolonize their historical range, and the panther comes into contact with more exurban and residential communities. Based on regression analysis of survey data, we found that individuals with eco‐centric value orientations, individuals who were aware of panthers’ presence in Florida prior to moving to Golden Gate Estates, and individuals who believe that proper animal care protects domestic animals from panthers were more tolerant of the panther. Age, livestock ownership, panther depredation of domestic animals, and risk concern were significant negative determinants of panther tolerance. The majority of respondents were willing to collaborate with neighbors and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) to manage panther‐related risks. Our research provides insights into how tolerance for the Florida panther in exurban and residential communities may be secured or improved. © 2018 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Wolf (Canis lupus) depredations of livestock are a ubiquitous source of conflict in every country where wolves and livestock overlap. We studied the spatial and temporal variation of wolf depredations of livestock in Montana during 2005–2015, including evaluations of targeted control efforts and public harvest as potential means to reduce depredations. During this time we collected spatial data for all confirmed wolf‐livestock depredations, tallied the annual number of depredation events within hunting districts, and collected data for variables potentially predictive of depredation events. We decomposed variation in depredation data into 2 distinct components: the binary presence or absence of depredation events in each district‐year, and the count of depredation events in district‐years with ≥1 event. We found that presence‐absence of depredations increased with wolf presence and wolf density, increased with livestock density, were highest at intermediate proportionate areas of agricultural land, and were a recurrent phenomenon such that districts with depredations the previous year were more likely to continue having them. Targeted removal, but not public harvest, significantly reduced the recurrent presence of depredations. The number of conflicts in district‐years with ≥1 depredation event was positively correlated with wolf density, cattle density, intermediate proportionate areas of forested land, and the number of events during the previous year. Public harvest reduced the counts of depredation events in areas where conflict reoccurred, though with a modest predicted effect size of 0.22 fewer depredations/district‐year, or 5.7 fewer depredation events statewide/year (8% of the annual average). Minimizing livestock losses is a top priority for wolf management. These results shed light on the broad‐scale patterns behind chronic problems and the effectiveness of wolf management practices in addressing them. © 2018 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compensation programs are used globally to increase tolerance for and help offset economic loss caused by large carnivores. Compensation program funding comes from a variety of sources, and in Wyoming and Idaho, USA and Alberta, Canada this includes revenue from hunting and fishing license sales. We review the patterns of livestock depredation and compensation costs of Alberta’s predator-compensation program, and compare Alberta’s program to compensation programs in neighboring Canadian and American jurisdictions. Current compensation costs in Alberta are well below historic levels, but have been rapidly increasing in recent years due to an increase in depredation events coupled with increased cattle prices. That increase has caused push back from Alberta’s hunting and fishing community that finances the compensation program, although less than 3.6% of Alberta’s license levy dollars are used for predator compensation. Hunting effort in Alberta is highest on the same privately owned lands with livestock depredation problems, suggesting that private lands support habitats for hunted ungulate species as well as carnivores. Although compensation programs do not prevent depredation events themselves, compensation programs effectively can support the maintenance of wildlife habitats on private lands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deforestation, ecosystem homogenization, and diversity loss are frequent problems in tropical livestock systems, which can foster substantial human-wildlife conflict when wild carnivores with declining prey bases turn to cattle depredation. The objective of this paper was to examine spatial and temporal variation in the presence, composition, and diversity of wild fauna, including predators and their prey base, in a well-established tropical livestock system. The study was conducted on a ~ 140,000 ha ranch in the Cerrado-Pantanal transition zone in Brazil, where large areas of improved pasture are bounded by blocks of intact montane forests and seasonally flooded lowland habitat. The study sampled wildlife with camera traps distributed across the land use gradient and rancher depredation observations were also obtained. Depredation accounted for the loss of 0.9% of the total herd in the sampling year, and the number of depredation events was greater closer to intact forest and distant from centralized ranch structures and mechanized operations. Mammal diversity was greatest adjacent to intact forest and supported a complete representation of the native trophic structure, including large predators such as jaguar ( Panthera onca ), puma ( Puma concolor ), and maned wolf ( Chrysocyon brachyurus ) and a diverse and abundant prey base. Sites progressively distant from intact forest and with more intensive conversion and development supported smaller subsets of the diversity and composition, and no apex predators. Livestock management practices to reduce the economic impact of depredation on calves requires faithful adherence, while opportunities exist for landscape management that will enhance diversity and facilitate movement of large mammals between intact forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livestock depredation by large carnivores entails economic damage to farmers in many parts of the world. The aim of this paper is to analyse and compare the costs of livestock depredation by carnivores in Sweden across different carnivore species and counties. To this end, we estimate the government's compensation cost function using Swedish data on the county level over the period of 2001 to 2013. Compensation costs due to depredation by three large carnivores are considered: the brown bear ( Ursus arctos ), the wolf ( Canis lupus ) and the lynx ( Lynx lynx ). The results show that a 1% increase in the density of the carnivores leads to a 0.3–0.4% increase in compensation costs, whereas a 1% increase in the density of sheep results in a 0.8 and 1.1% increase in the compensation costs for brown bears and wolves, respectively. A larger share of unfenced pastures is associated with higher compensation costs for brown bear. The marginal cost of an additional carnivore individual varies considerably between counties, ranging between 1 and 82 EUR for lynxes, 0 and 266 EUR for brown bears, and 52 and 1067 EUR for wolves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wolf control to reduce cattle depredation is an important issue to ecology and agriculture in the United States. Two recent papers use the same dataset having wolf population characteristics and cattle depredation, but come to opposing conclusions concerning the link between wolf control and cattle depredation. Our paper aims to resolve this issue by using the same dataset and developing a model based on a causal association that would explain the nature of the relationship between wolf control and cattle depredation. We use the data on wolf population, number of cattle, number of wolves killed and number of cattle killed, from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services Interagency Annual Wolf Reports over the period of 1987–2012. We find a positive link between wolf control and cattle depredation. However, it would be incorrect to infer that wolf control has a positive effect on the number of cattle depredated. We maintain that this link comes from a growing wolf population, which increases cattle depredation, and in turn, causes an increase in the number of wolves killed. While the wolf population is growing, we see both wolf removal and cattle depredation simultaneously grow. It is not until the wolf population growth nears the steady state, that removal of wolves has a sufficient negative effect to reduce or stabilize the number of cattle depredated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In human-populated landscapes worldwide, domestic dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris) are the most abundant terrestrial carnivore. Although dogs have been used for the protection of livestock from wild carnivores, they have also been implicated as predators of livestock. We used a combination of methods (field surveys, interview surveys, and data from secondary sources) to examine the patterns and factors driving livestock depredation by free-ranging dogs, as well as economic losses to local communities in a Trans-Himalayan agro-pastoralist landscape in India. Our results show that livestock abundance was a better predictor of depredation in the villages than local dog abundance. Dogs mainly killed small-bodied livestock and sheep were the most selected prey. Dogs were responsible for the majority of livestock losses, with losses being comparable to that by snow leopards. This high level of conflict may disrupt community benefits from conservation programs and potentially undermine the conservation efforts in the region through a range of cascading effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reliable verification of damage claims is fundamental to create public trust in the legitimacy of compensation programs, and avoid fraud and moral hazards. However, after decades of using this tool, transparency in verification processes and availability of quantitative information on the accuracy and misidentification rates are unresolved issues. Accurate rules overcome several challenges facing compensation programs worldwide, such as the difficulty of proving claims, lack of compensation or insufficiency of community support. Here, we tested the accuracy of the verification protocol of damage claims used in Sweden for large carnivore depredations on sheep. In Sweden, verifiers (who will determine if a livestock owner is compensated or not after a suspected attack) uses rules grounded on typical bite marks from each predator species on animal carcasses. Contrasted with DNA salivary analysis, verifiers correctly identified wolf and lynx as the culprit species in 86% (n = 57) and 91% (n = 11) of cases tested, respectively, and the overall accuracy in identifying a predation event was 94%. We believe that rigorous tests of current damage verification protocols are essential to show people the frequency that predation results in compensation, as well as how often other causes of livestock death or injury are erroneously interpreted as being inflicted by large carnivores. The use of DNA salivary analysis to test the accuracy of damage verification protocols is transferable to any livestock-carnivore conflict scenario worldwide, as well as to other wildlife, such as ungulates browsing on forest plantations and crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mammalian carnivores often cause problems for people by preying on domestic stock. Exploring the factors that affect people's attitudes to predators, in particular the circumstances when some degree of loss is tolerated, is needed for developing predator management plans. When more than one species of predator is involved, there may be unexpected interactive effects in shaping people's tolerance. We addressed this hypothesis in a west Asian multi-predator montane landscape with high density of both wild ungulates and livestock harboring two large predators, Persian leopard and grey wolf. A semi-structured questionnaire survey of herders residing around Tandoureh, Salouk and Sarigol National Parks, northeastern Iran was carried out. The perceived role of leopards in depredation was negligible compared with that of wolves which were reported to be more frequent stock raiders and responsible for an average of 5.7 times more annual losses per herd by than were leopards. Non-predatory causes of mortality, particularly diseases, were clearly the major threat to livestock. Interviewed herders showed different attitudes toward each predator. Regardless of any recent occurrence of stock raiding by wolves, they were predominantly considered negatively. Although people showed mainly positive attitudes toward leopards, respondents who reported more wolf attacks tended to have more negative attitudes toward leopards. Hence, in multiple predator ecosystems, peoples' attitudes toward each species may be affected by the perceived activity of other predators. Often neglected in conservation programs, this phenomenon is clearly important in sustaining people tolerance particularly if endangered large predators are involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Efficient conservation of wide-ranging carnivores requires that adaptive management consider the varying ecological and societal conditions within the entire range of a population. In northern Europe, large carnivore management has to balance carnivore conservation and maintaining the indigenous reindeer-herding culture. Wolverine Gulo gulo monitoring and management in Sweden is currently focused on alpine reindeer husbandry areas where wolverine abundance and associated depredation conflicts have been highest. However, this focus ignores a potential southwards population expansion because current monitoring relies on snow-based tracking methods that are not applicable outside northern alpine areas. Thus, in this study we: (1) used available monitoring data from 1996 to 2014 in Sweden to assess wolverine distribution trends in relation to national management goals, and (2) evaluate the current monitoring protocol against the use of camera stations as an alternative, snow-independent, method for detecting wolverine presence at the southern periphery of its distribution. We show that the wolverine population in Sweden has expanded considerably into the boreal forest landscape, and colonized areas without reindeer husbandry and persistent spring snow cover. The latter indicates a less strict relationship between wolverine distribution and snow cover than previously hypothesized. Current management continues to use a monitoring protocol that is only adapted to high-conflict alpine areas, and is not adapting to changing conditions in the population range, which creates a problematic scale mismatch. Consequently, national management decisions are currently based on incomplete population information, as roughly a third of wolverine's range is not included in official population estimates, which could have detrimental consequences for conflict mitigation and conservation efforts. This illustrates that an important key to successful carnivore conservation is flexible management that considers the entire range of conditions at the appropriate regional and temporal scales under which carnivores, environment and people interact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nicaragua’s Bosawás Biosphere Reserve is a vast forested area inhabited largely by indigenous Mayangna and Miskitu people. Most Bosawás residents rely on subsistence hunting and swidden agriculture, and hunting dogs are important for finding and securing wild game. We investigated the health of hunting dogs in three communities differing in location, size, and economy. Dogs in all communities were nutritionally compromised and experienced a heavy burden of disease. Seroprevalence of canine distemper, canine parvovirus, Rickettsia rickettsii , and Leptospira spp. exceeded 50% of dogs. At least one dog was actively shedding leptospires in urine, and many dogs were anemic and/or dehydrated. These dogs interact with wildlife in the forest and humans and domestic livestock in the communities, and may therefore serve as sources of zoonotic and wildlife diseases. Bosawás represents one of the largest intact tracts of habitat for jaguars ( Panthera onca ) in Central America, and given that these communities are located within the forest, jaguars may be at risk from disease spillover from hunting dogs. Dog owners reported that four of 49 dogs had been attacked and killed by jaguars in the past year, and that retaliatory killing of jaguars was sometimes practiced. Disease spillover from dogs to wildlife could occur both in the course of dogs’ hunting activities as well as during jaguar attacks. A better understanding of dog depredation by jaguars, pathogen exposure in jaguars, and a management strategy for the hunting dog population, are urgently needed to mitigate these dual threats to jaguars, improve the lives of hunting dogs, and safeguard the health of their owners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]