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Ischemic stroke is a devastating disease with limited therapeutic options. It is very urgent to find a new target for drug development. Here we found that the blood level of MIF in ischemic stroke patients is upregulated. To figure out the pathological role of MIF in ischemic stroke, both in vitro and in vivo studies were conducted. For in vitro studies, primary cortical neuron cultures and adult rat brain endothelial cells (ARBECs) were subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD)/reoxygenation. Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) rodent models were used for in vivo studies. The results show that MIF exerts no direct neuronal toxicity in primary culture but disrupts tight junction in ARBECs. Furthermore, administration of MIF following MCAo shows the deleterious influence on stroke-induced injury by destroying the tight junction of blood-brain barrier and increasing the infarct size. In contrast, administration of MIF antagonist ISO-1 has the profound neuroprotective effect. Our results demonstrate that MIF might be a good drug target for the therapy of stroke.

OBJECTIVES Patients with posterior circulation infarction are at higher risk of early recurrent stroke, especially those with vertebrobasilar stenosis or hypoplasia. The clinical presentations of this condition vary over a broad range, making diagnosis and treatment a challenge. Hemodynamic changes and stenosis detected by ultrasonography (US) are sensitive and important indicators for further evaluation. In this study, we correlated extracranial and intracranial US characteristics with brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in patients with posterior circulation infarction. METHODS Inpatients with acute ischemic stroke who received both MRI and US were enrolled. Baseline characters, underlying disorders, the ischemic territory, and vascular stenosis on MRI were recorded. Series of US data, including flow volume, diameter, mean velocity, and pulsatility index, were analyzed. Patients with new infarction over the medulla, pons, midbrain, or cerebellum were enrolled as the posterior circulation infarction group. Patients with pure anterior circulation infarction were also enrolled. RESULTS A total of 210 patients with anterior circulation infarction (mean age ± SD, 66.24 ± 12.88 years) and 143 with posterior circulation infarction (mean age, 65.82 ± 11.39 years) were enrolled. Significant higher frequencies of vertebral artery hypoplasia and decreased intracranial vertebrobasilar velocity in the posterior circulation infarction group (44.75% and 64.33%, respectively) were documented (P

Long-term opioid therapy for chronic pain may lead to analgesic tolerance, especially when administered intrathecally, thus preventing adequate pain relief. Discovering drug targets to treat opioid tolerance using a mechanism-based approach targeting opioid-induced neuroinflammation provides new therapeutic opportunities. In this study, we provide translational evidence that CXCL12/CXCR4 signaling contributes to the pathogenesis of opioid tolerance.The CXCL12 levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of opioid-tolerant patients were compared with those of opioid-naive subjects. For further investigation, a rodent translational study was designed using 2 clinically relevant opioid delivery paradigms: daily intraperitoneal morphine injections and continuous intrathecal morphine infusion. We measured rats' tail flick responses and calculated the percentage of maximum possible effects (%MPE) to demonstrate opioid acute antinociception and the development of analgesic tolerance. The effects of exogenous CXCL12, CXCL12 neutralizing antibody, and receptor antagonist AMD3100 were investigated by intrathecal administration. Data were presented as mean ± SEM.CXCL12 was significantly upregulated in the cerebrospinal fluid of opioid-tolerant patients for 892 ± 34 pg/mL (n = 27) versus 755 ± 33 pg/mL (n = 10) in naive control subjects (P = .03). Furthermore, after 2 and 5 days of intrathecal morphine infusion, rat lumbar spinal cord dorsal horn CXCL12 messenger RNA levels were significantly upregulated by 3.2 ± 0.7 (P = .016) and 3.4 ± 0.3 (P = .003) fold, respectively. Results from the daily intraperitoneal morphine injection experiments revealed that administering an intrathecal infusion of CXCL12 for 24 hours before the first morphine injection did not decrease antinociception efficacy on day 1 but accelerated tolerance after day 2 (%MPE 49.5% vs 88.1%, P = .0003). In the intrathecal morphine coinfusion experiments, CXCL12 accelerated tolerance development (%MPE 9.4% vs 43.4% on day 1, P.0001), whereas coadministration with CXCL12 neutralizing antibody attenuated tolerance (72.5% vs 43.4% on day 1, P.0001; 47.6% vs 17.5% on day 2, P.0001). Coadministration of receptor antagonist AMD 3100 can persistently preserve morphine analgesic effects throughout the study period (27.9% ± 4.1% vs 0.9% ± 1.6% on day 5, P = .03).The CXCL12/CXCR4 pathway contributes to the pathogenesis of opioid tolerance. Our study indicates that intervening with CXCL12/CXCR4 signaling has therapeutic potential for opioid tolerance.

Objectives Vertebrobasilar dolichoectasia (VBD) and vertebral artery hypoplasia (VAH) are known predisposing factors of posterior circulation stokes. These vascular conditions have unique hemodynamic patterns in neuroimaging studies; however, they have been presented as a single entity in some reports. The aim of this retrospective study was to clarify the relationship between these conditions with regard to ultrasound (US) findings. Methods A total of 465 patients with strokes were recruited. Brain magnetic resonance imaging of vertebrobasilar arteries and differences in extracranial side-to-side vertebral artery (VA) flow were recorded by US and compared in groups. Results The mean age of the 465 patients ± SD was 67.23 ± 12.13 years; 296 were men. The prevalence of VBD was 13.5% (n = 63), and 10.8% (n = 50) of the patients had coexisting VAH and VBD. These patients also had the highest prevalence of posterior circulation strokes (58% [n = 29]). A cutoff value of 55.65 mL/min and a ratio discrepancy of 5.28 (group median) for the side-to-side extracranial VA flow volume as detected by conventional US were also observed in the patients with both VAH and VBD. Conclusions Our study revealed a higher prevalence of posterior circulation strokes in the patients with both VBD and VAH. Chronic asymmetric hemodynamic shear force in extracranial VAs leading to deformity of the vertebrobasilar system may explain our observations. Accordingly, the blood flow volume and the ratio difference could potentially be used to detect patients at risk of VBD and reduce stroke risk factors.

// Sing-Yi Gu 1, 2 , Choa-Chi Ho 3 , Yung-Kang Huang 2 , Huei-Wen Chen 1 , Yu-Chi Wang 2 , Chia-Yu Kuo 2 , Shu-Chun Teng 4 , Wen-Mei Fu 2 , Pan-Chyr Yang 3 , Cheng-Wen Wu 5 , Fu-Chuo Peng 1 , Thai-Yen Ling 2, 6 1 Graduate Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 2 Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 3 Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 4 Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 5 Institute of Biomedical Science, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan 6 Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan Correspondence to: Thai-Yen Ling, e-mail: tyling@ntu.edu.tw Fu-Chuo Peng, e-mail: fcpeng@ntu.edu.tw Keywords: pulmonary stem/progenitor cells, cancer initiating cells, Oct-4, angiogenesis, angiopoietins/Tie2 Received: November 01, 2015 Accepted: January 28, 2016 Published: February 9, 2016 ABSTRACT Cancer stem cells, also known as cancer initiating cells (CICs), are considered to be responsible for tumor growth and chemoresistance. Different hypotheses have been proposed to explain the origin of CICs, including mutations in adult stem/progenitor cells or the acquisition of stem-like characteristics in differentiated cells; however, studies have yielded conflicting identification for CICs and have little information for the origin to generate CICs. Part of the difficulty in identifying CICs may stem from the fact that the CICs studied have been largely derived from cancer cell lines or well-developed tumors. In previous studies, we have reported the enrichment of mouse pulmonary stem/progenitor cells (mPSCs) by using serum-free primary selection culture followed by FACS isolation using the coxsackievirus/adenovirus receptor (CAR) as the positive selection marker. Here, we demonstrated that overexpression of the pluripotent transcription factor Oct-4 is sufficient to induce CAR + /mPSCs transformation, which we name CAR + /mPSCs Oct-4_hi . These transformed cells possess cancer initiating and chemoresistance potential, as well as exhibiting remarkable expression of certain proangiogenic factors, including angiopoietins (ANGs) and VEGF, and enhanced angiogenic potential. Moreover, CAR + /mPSCs Oct-4_hi actively participated in tumor blood vessel formation and triggered a novel angiogenic mechanism, the angiopoietins/Tie2 signaling pathway. These study provide critical evidence supporting the possible origin to generate CICs, and help elucidate the pathways responsible for CICs-mediated blood vessel formation.

Background Impaired social interaction is one of the essential features of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Our previous copy number variation (CNV) study discovered a novel deleted region associated with ASD. One of the genes included in the deleted region is ARHGEF10. A missense mutation of ARHGEF10 has been reported to be one of the contributing factors in several diseases of the central nervous system. However, the relationship between the loss of ARHGEF10 and the clinical symptoms of ASD is unclear. Methods We generated Arhgef10 knockout mice as a model of ASD and characterized the social behavior and the biochemical changes in the brains of the knockout mice. Results Compared with their wild-type littermates, the Arhgef10-depleted mice showed social interaction impairment, hyperactivity, and decreased depression-like and anxiety-like behavior. Behavioral measures of learning in the Morris water maze were not affected by Arhgef10 deficiency. Moreover, neurotransmitters including serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine were significantly increased in different brain regions of the Arhgef10 knockout mice. In addition, monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) decreased in several brain regions. Conclusions These results suggest that ARHGEF10 is a candidate risk gene for ASD and that the Arhgef10 knockout model could be a tool for studying the mechanisms of neurotransmission in ASD. Trial registration Animal studies were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of National Taiwan University (IACUC 20150023). Registered 1 August 2015. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13229-018-0197-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

As human beings live longer, age-related diseases such as osteoporosis will become more prevalent. Intolerant side effects and poor responses to current treatments are observed. Therefore, novel effective therapeutic agents are greatly needed. Here, pyrazole derivatives were designed and synthesized, and their osteoclastogenesis inhibitory effects both in vitro and in vivo were evaluated. The most promising compound 13 with a 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl group inhibited markedly in vitro osteoclastogenesis as well as the bone resorption activity of osteoclasts. Compound 13 affected osteoclast's early proliferation and differentiation more than later fusion and maturation stages. In ovariectomized (OVX) mice, compound 13 can inhibit the loss of trabecular bone volume, trabecular bone number, and trabecular thickness. Moreover, compound 13 can antagonize OVX-induced reduction of serum bone resorption marker and then compensatory increase of the bone formation marker. To sum up, compound 13 has high potential to be developed into a novel therapeutic agent for treating osteoporosis in the future.

Background: The pivotal role of glial activation and up-regulated inflammatory mediators in the opioid tolerance has been confirmed in rodents but not yet in humans. Here, the authors investigated the intraspinal cytokine and chemokine profiles of opioid-tolerant cancer patients; and to determine if up-regulated chemokines could modify opioid tolerance in rats. Methods: Cerebrospinal fluid samples from opioid-tolerant cancer patients and opioid-naive subjects were compared. The cerebrospinal fluid levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, CXCL1, CXCL10, CCL2, and CX3CL1 were assayed. The rat tail flick test was utilized to assess the effects of intrathecal CXCL1 on morphine-induced acute antinociception and analgesic tolerance. Results: CXCL1 level in cerebrospinal fluid was significantly up-regulated in the opioid-tolerant group (n = 30, 18.8 pg/ml vs. 13.2 pg/ml, P = 0.02) and was positively correlated (r2 = 0.49, P < 0.01) with opioid dosage. In rat experiment, after induction of tolerance by morphine infusion, the spinal cord CXCL1 messenger RNA was up-regulated to 32.5 ± 11.9-fold. Although CXCL1 infusion alone did not affect baseline tail-flick latency, the analgesic efficacy of a single intraperitoneal injection of morphine dropped significantly on day 1 to day 3 after intrathecal infusion of CXCL1. After establishing tolerance by intrathecal continuous infusion of morphine, its development was accelerated by coadministration of CXCL1 and attenuated by coadministration of CXCL1-neutralizing antibody or CXCR2 antagonist. Conclusions: CXCL1 is up-regulated in both opioid-tolerant patients and rodents. The onset and extent of opioid tolerance was affected by antagonizing intrathecal CXCL1/CXCR2 signaling. Therefore, the CXCL1/CXCR2 signal pathway may be a novel target for the treatment of opioid tolerance.

Background Growth hormone (GH) mainly serves an endocrine function to regulate somatic growth, but also serves an autocrine function in lung growth and pulmonary function. Several recent studies have demonstrated the role of autocrine GH in tumor progression in some organs. However, it is not clear whether excessive secretion of GH in the lungs is related to pulmonary nodule formation. Methods Firstly, the lung tissues dissected from mice were used for Western blotting and PCR measurement. Secondly, the cultured cells were used for examining effects of GH on B16F10 murine melanoma cells. Thirdly, male C57BL/6 mice were intravenously injected with B16F10 cells and then subcutaneously injected with recombinant GH twice per week for three weeks. Finally, stably transfected pool of B16F10 cells with knockdown of growth hormone receptor (GHR) was used to be injected into mice. Results We found that expression of GH was elevated in the lungs of DJ-1 knockout (KO) mice. We also examined the effects of GH on the growth of cultured melanoma cells. The results showed that GH increased proliferation, colony formation, and invasive capacity of B16F10 cells. In addition, GH also increased the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in B16F10 cells. Administration of GH in vivo enhanced lung nodule formation in C57/B6 mice. Increased lung nodule formation in DJ-1 KO mice following intravenous injection of melanoma cells was inhibited by GHR knockdown in B16F10 cells. Conclusions These results indicate that up-regulation of GH in the lungs of DJ-1 KO mice may enhance the malignancy of B16F10 cells and nodule formation in pulmonary metastasis of melanoma. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-016-2898-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Neuroinflammation and oxidative stress are important factors that induce neurodegeneration in age-related neurological disorders. 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LOX) is the enzyme responsible for catalysing the synthesis of leukotriene or 5-HETE from arachidonic acid. 5-LOX is expressed in the central nervous system and may cause neurodegenerative disease. In this study, we investigated the effect of the pharmacological inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase on 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)/MPP(+)-induced dopaminergic neuronal death in midbrain neuron-glia co-cultures and in mice. It was found that 5-LOX was over-expressed in astrocytes after the injection of MPTP into C57BL6 mice. MK-886, a specific inhibitor of 5-LOX activating protein (FLAP), significantly increased [(3)H]-dopamine uptake, a functional indicator of the integrity of dopaminergic neurons, in midbrain cultures or the SH-SY5Y human dopaminergic cell line following MPP(+) treatment. In addition, LTB₄, one of 5-LOX's downstream products, was increased in the striatum and substantia nigra following MPTP injection in mice. LTB₄ but not LTD₄ and 5-HETE enhanced MPP(+)-induced neurotoxicity in primary midbrain cultures. MK-886 administration increased the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons in the substantia nigra and the dopamine content in the striatum in MPTP-induced parkinsonian mice. Furthermore, the MPTP-induced upregulation of LTB₄ in the striatum and substantia nigra was antagonised by MK-886. These results suggest that 5-LOX inhibitors may be developed as novel neuroprotective agents and LTB₄ may play an important pathological role in Parkinson's disease.

12/15-Lipoxygenase (12/15-LOX) is a non-haeme iron-containing dioxygenase that forms 12(S)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12(S)-HETE) or 15(S)-HETE. Several biological mediators including cytokines, growth factors and lipid metabolites released during tumour cell-endothelial cell adhesion are associated with malignant tumour progression. Here we found that HETEs released from the host organ played a critical role in tumour metastasis. Intravenous injection of B16F10 melanoma cells caused lung nodule formation, which was markedly attenuated in 12/15-LOX null mice. Co-injection of melanoma cells with 12(S)-HETE increased the lung homing activity of B16F10 melanoma cells. In vitro studies showed that 12(S)-HETE and 15(S)-HETE treatment resulted in a concentration-dependent increase of adhesion of B16F10 cells on collagen or fibronectin. The melanoma cell adhesion was then evaluated in pulmonary primary cell culture isolated from wild-type (WT) and 12/15-LOX knockout (KO) mice. It was found that the adhesion of melanoma cells on the epithelial cells isolated from 12/15-LOX null mice was reduced in comparison with those isolated from WT mice. Treatment of 12(S)-HETE increased the pFAK in melanoma cells adhering on collagen-coated slide. The enhancement of adherence elicited by 12(S)-HETE in B16F10 cells could be antagonised by focal adhesion kinase (FAK) inhibitor 14 (FAK inhibitor) or PD98059 (extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) inhibitor). 12(S)-HETE increased the phosphorylation of FAK and ERK in adhering melanoma cells. The FAK phosphorylation induced by 12(S)-HETE was further inhibited by PD98059, indicating that FAK is the downstream target of ERK. The adhesion and lung metastasis of human melanoma cells of C32 in NOD/SCID mice were also potentiated by co-treatment with 12(S)-HETE. These results demonstrate that 12(S)-HETE/15(S)-HETE activates ERK and FAK signalling pathways, thereby upregulates the adhesion and metastatic potential of melanoma cells. The endogenous release of 12(S)-HETE/15(S)-HETE in the host organ may affect the metastatic potential of melanoma.

Mutation in the human PTEN-induced protein kinase 1 (PINK1) gene is responsible for the second most common form of recessive Parkinson disease (PD). We have identified a single heterozygous PINK1 mutation, P209A, from a cohort of 68 patients with early onset PD. From age 31, this patient developed an asymmetric bradykinesia with rigidity that was L-DOPA responsive. An [(18)F]-fluorodopa PET scan showed reduced DOPA uptake in the bilateral basal ganglia. The H2O2-induced cell death, ROS production, and caspase-3 activation in SH-SY5Y cells were enhanced by the transfection of the PINK1 P209A mutant. The heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) induction in response to H2O2 and MPP(+) treatment was impaired by the overexpression of the PINK1 P209A mutant. In addition, SOD2 induction after TNFα treatment was also inhibited by the PINK1 P209A mutation. Akt and ERK are involved in HO-1 induction after oxidative stress. The phosphorylation of Akt and ERK after exposure to H2O2 or MPP(+) was also inhibited in PINK1 P209A mutant cells compared with empty-vector-transfected cells. These results indicate a novel pathway by which the P209A defect in the PINK1 kinase domain inhibits oxidative stress-induced HO-1 and SOD2 induction, which may accelerate the neurodegeneration in PD with PINK1 defect.

Acetazolamide (AZ) is an carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, which has been used in the treatment of seizures, mountain sickness and glaucoma. Memory impairment by AZ has been reported in patient interviews; however, the related mechanism is unclear. We applied two fear conditioning paradigms, shuttle avoidance and passive avoidance, in both rats and mice to investigate this clinical anecdote. Adult Wistar rats receiving AZ 1 h before the shuttle avoidance test showed decreased avoidance rates, especially at high dosage. Adult ICR mice receiving AZ both before and after acquisition trials showed the decreased step-through latencies during the passive avoidance test. This impairment of fear memory was corroborated with decreased LTP by AZ in the amygdala. AZ only inhibited fear conditioning-induced ERK phosphorylation and had no effect on Akt phosphorylation. In conclusion, our study confirmed the adverse cognitive effect of AZ in animal and electrophysiological studies. In clinical practice, clinicians should be aware of this side effect in patients taking AZ. In addition, this inhibition of fear memory by AZ could potentially be applied to patients with posttraumatic stress disorder.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease involving a combination of cartilage degradation and inflammation. EGb761, a standardized extract of Ginkgo biloba leaves, holds an anti-inflammatory potency. Here, we determined whether EGb761 could inhibit lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and IL-1β-induced inflammatory responses in human articular chondrocytes and apply the chondroprotection in OA rats. We found that LPS markedly induced the productions of PGE2 and NO and the protein expressions of COX-2 and iNOS in human chondrocytes. LPS was also seen to up-regulate the expressions of toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4), its downstream signal TNF receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), and nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling. These LPS-induced inflammatory responses were efficaciously reversed by EGb761 and its active components quercetin and kampferol. The similar results could be observed by using IL-1β as an in vitro model to mimic an inflammatory response. In an OA rat model, PGE2 and NO levels in blood, the histological alterations, and COX-2 and nitrotyrosine expressions in cartilages were markedly increased, which were effectively reversed by EGb761. Our results suggested that EGb761 exerts the anti-inflammatory effects on human articular chondrocytes and OA rats.

Dextromethorphan (DXM), a commonly used antitussive, is a dextrorotatory morphinan. Here, we report that DXM inhibits the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption by abrogating the activation of NF-κB signalling in vitro. Oral administration of DXM ameliorates ovariectomy (OVX)-induced osteoporosis in vivo. DXM was reported to possess anti-inflammatory properties through inhibition of the release of pro-inflammatory factors. However, the potential role and action mechanism of DXM on osteoclasts and osteoblasts remain unclear. In this study, in vitro and in vivo studies were performed to investigate the potential effects of DXM on osteoclastogenesis and OVX-induced bone loss. Osteoclastogenesis was examined by the TRAP staining, pit resorption, TNF-α release, and CCR2 and CALCR gene expression. Osteoblast differentiation was analyzed by calcium deposition. Osteogenic and adipogenic genes were measured by real-time PCR. Signaling pathways were explored using Western blot. ICR mice were used in an OVX-induced osteoporosis model. Tibiae were measured by µCT and serum markers were examined with ELISA kits. DXM inhibited RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis. DXM mainly inhibited osteoclastogenesis via abrogation of IKK-IκBα-NF-κB pathways. However, a higher dosage of DXM antagonized the differentiation of osteoblasts via the inhibition of osteogenic signals and increase of adipogenic signals. Oral administration of DXM (20 mg/kg/day) partially reduced trabecular bone loss in ovariectomized mice. DXM inhibits osteoclast differentiation and activity by affecting NF-κB signaling. Therefore, DXM at suitable doses may have new therapeutic applications for the treatment of diseases associated with excessive osteoclastic activity.

Oncostatin M (OSM) belongs to IL-6 subfamily and is mostly produced by T lymphocytes. High levels of OSM are detected in the pannus of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients and it may arouse the inflammation responses in joints and eventually leads to bone erosion. Placenta growth factor (PLGF) is an angiogenic factor and highly homologous with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). It has been recently reported that PLGF is highly expressed in synovial tissue and enhances the production of proinflammatory cytokines including TNF-α and IL-6. Here, we demonstrated that OSM increased mRNA and protein levels of PLGF in a time- and concentration-dependent manner in RA synovial fibroblasts. Inhibitors of JAK3 and PI3K antagonized OSM-induced production of PLGF. OSM enhanced the phosphorylation of Tyr705-STAT3, Ser727-STAT3, Ser473-Akt, and increased the nuclear translocation of phosphorylated STAT3 time-dependently. Transfection of dominant negative Akt or application of PI3K inhibitorLY294002 significantly inhibited p-Tyr705-STAT3, p-Ser727-STAT3, and PLGF expression, indicating that Akt is involved in JAK3/STAT3/PLGF signaling cascade. To further examine whether STAT3 binds to the promoter region of PLGF, Chip assay was used and it was found that OSM could bind with PLGF promoter, which was inhibited by JAK3 and PI3K inhibitors. Accumulation of PLGF in the pannus may contribute to the inflammation, angiogenesis and joints destruction in RA patients. These findings demonstrated the important role of OSM in the pathology network of RA and provided novel therapeutic drug targets for RA treatment.

The clinical application of chemotherapeutics for brain tumors remains a challenge due to limitation of blood-brain barrier/blood-tumor barrier (BBB/BTB). In this study, we investigated the effects of low-dose focused ultrasound hyperthermia (UH) on the delivery and therapeutic efficacy of pegylated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD) for brain metastasis of breast cancer. Murine breast cancer cells (4T1-luc2) expressing firefly luciferase were implanted into mouse striatum as a brain tumor model. The mice were intravenously injected with PLD with/without transcranial pulsed-wave/continuous-wave UH (pUH/cUH) treatment on day-6 after tumor implantation. pUH (frequency: 500kHz, PRF: 1000Hz, duty cycle: 50%) was conducted under equal acoustic power (2.2-Watt) and sonication duration (10-min) as cUH. The amounts of doxorubicin accumulated in the normal brain and tumor tissues were measured with fluorometry. The tumor growth responses for the control, pUH, PLD, PLD+cUH, and PLD+pUH groups were evaluated with IVIS. The PLD distribution and cell apoptosis were assessed with immunofluorescence staining. The results showed that pUH significantly enhanced the PLD delivery into brain tumors and the tumor growth was further inhibited by PLD+pUH without damaging the sonicated normal brain tissues. This indicates that low-dose transcranial pUH is a promising method to selectively enhance nanodrug delivery and improve the brain tumor treatment.

Integrins are heterodimeric cell surface receptors that mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interaction. The vitronectin and osteopontin receptor αvβ3 integrin has increased expression levels and is implicated in the adhesion, activation, and migration of osteoclasts on the bone surface as well as osteoclast polarization. αvβ3 integrin plays an important role in osteoclast differentiation and resorption. In addition, Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD)-containing peptides, small molecular inhibitors, and antibodies to αvβ3 integrin have been shown to inhibit bone resorption in vitro and in vivo. Here we examined the effects of a disintegrin HSA-ARLDDL a genetically modified mutant of rhodostomin conjugated with human serum albumin, which is highly selective of αvβ3, on RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis and ovariectomy (OVX)-induced osteoporosis. In RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis, HSA-ARLDDL significantly inhibited osteoclast formation, and IC50 was at nM range. Post-treatment HSA-ARLDDL also inhibits osteoclast formation. Furthermore, weekly administration of HSA-ARLDDL significantly inhibits the increase in serum bone resorption marker levels and decrease in cancellous bone loss in tibia and femur induced by OVX. On the other hand, HSA-ARLDDL did not affect the differentiation and calcium deposition of osteoblasts. These results indicate that the highly selective and long-acting αvβ3 integrin antagonists could be developed as effective drugs for postmenopausal osteoporosis.

Background Increased prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children with allergic rhinitis (AR) has been reported. Our previous study showed that children with untreated AR had higher ADHD scores than did the controls. Objective This prospective follow-up study aimed to investigate whether elevated ADHD scores in children with AR could be decreased by AR treatment. Methods Sixty-eight children with AR (age range, 6-14 years) and who were drug naive were enrolled and evaluated by AR symptom score, ADHD symptom scores, and computerized continuous performance test, before and after AR therapy, which included nonpharmacologic intervention, oral antihistamines, and topical steroids. Thirty-one age-matched controls and 13 children with pure ADHD were also enrolled for comparison. The relationship between the AR and ADHD score change was analyzed by a partial correlation test, and univariate and multivariate linear regression models were applied to investigate possible predictors for the improvement of ADHD scores by AR treatment. Results AR symptom scores in children with AR decreased significantly after treatment (p < 0.001), and their ADHD scores also decreased significantly (p < 0.001). An improved AR symptom score was positively correlated with improved detectability (rp = 0.617, p = 0.001) and commission error (rp = 0.511, p = 0.011). Significant predictors for the improvement of ADHD scores included age, AR drugs, AR subtypes, and multiple atopic diseases (ps < 0.05). Conclusion Higher ADHD scores in children with AR compared with healthy controls decreased significantly with AR treatment. For children with AR and borderline ADHD symptoms, who do not meet full ADHD diagnostic criteria, we recommend initially treating their AR and monitoring improvement of ADHD symptoms.

Background Opioids are crucial in cancer pain management. We examined the nationwide prescription patterns of opioids in Taiwan cancer patients to find the potential concerns. Methods We reviewed the claims database of the National Health Insurance of Taiwan for patients diagnosed with cancer from 2003 to 2011. The use and cost of analgesics were analyzed. Opioids were classified into recommended strong opioids (morphine and transdermal fentanyl), recommended weak opioids (tramadol, buprenorphine, and codeine), and unrecommended opioids (propoxyphene, nalbuphine, and meperidine). Results We enrolled 1,424,048 patients with cancer, and ∼50% of them took analgesics. Among analgesic users, patients who used opioids increased from 48.2% in 2003 to 52.0% in 2010. Approximately 92% of the opioid use came from recommended opioids, either strong (51%) or weak opioids (41%). The ratio of the use of short-acting strong opioids to that of long-acting opioids increased from 0.41 in 2003 to 0.63 in 2011. Transdermal fentanyl accounted for > 50% of the use of strong opioids. Among weak opioids, the use of tramadol gradually increased to 71% in 2011. On average, opioids contributed to 0.79‰ of all medical expenditures and 2.94‰ of all medication costs. Conclusion The use of short-acting strong opioids increased during the study period. Instead of oral opioids, transdermal fentanyl was the most commonly used opioid among Taiwan cancer patients. The use of weak opioids, particularly tramadol, was high. These concerns should be the focus of pain management education.

Substantial evidence has clearly demonstrated the role of the IL-6-NF-κB signaling loop in promoting aggressive phenotypes in breast cancer. However, the exact mechanism by which this inflammatory loop is regulated remains to be defined. Here, we report that integrin-linked kinase (ILK) acts as a molecular switch for this feedback loop. Specifically, we show that IL-6 induces ILK expression via E2F1 upregulation, which, in turn, activates NF-κB signaling to facilitate IL-6 production. shRNA-mediated knockdown or pharmacological inhibition of ILK disrupted this IL-6-NF-κB signaling loop, and blocked IL-6-induced cancer stem cells in vitro and estrogen-independent tumor growth in vivo Together, these findings establish ILK as an intermediary effector of the IL-6-NF-κB feedback loop and a promising therapeutic target for breast cancer.

Objectives Deficiency and/or decreased activity of methyltetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) resulted from MTHFR variants are associated with hyperhomocysteinemia, an independent risk factor for vasculopathies in diabetic patients. The aim of this study was to examine MTHFR genotypes between healthy and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) subjects. Design and methods MTHFR C677T and A1298C genotypes were analyzed in 56 T2DM and 62 healthy subjects by PCR-RFLP. Association between MTHFR genotypes and T2DM as well as the lipid/glucose metabolic indexes among T2DM subjects was statistically analyzed. Results No significance in the distribution of MTHFR genotypes between healthy and T2DM subjects is found. Besides, no significant associations between lipid/glucose metabolic indexes with MTHFR genotypes among diabetic patients are observed. Conclusions These data indicate the previous observation that MTHFR polymorphisms may play some roles in the pathogenesis and complications of T2DM in Caucasians are unlikely to be applied in Taiwanese patients.

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is up-regulated in response to oxidative stress and catalyzes the degradation of pro-oxidant heme to carbon monoxide (CO), iron and bilirubin. Bilirubin is a potent antioxidant and neuroprotectant. Neurotrophic factors of BDNF and GDNF also play important roles in survival and morphological differentiation of dopaminergic neurons. We have previously found that HO-1 induction by adenovirus containing human HO-1 gene (Ad-HO-1) in substantia nigra of rat increases BDNF and GDNF expression. We here further examined the possible mechanism of HO-1 action involved in the enhancement of neurotrophic factor expression. Treatment of anti-BDNF/GDNF antibody significantly enhanced dopaminergic neuronal death, whereas Ad-HO-1 co-treatment was able to antagonize the apoptosis-inducing effect of these antibodies. The confocal imaging shows that HO-1 induction appeared in dopaminergic neuron, astrocyte and microglia at 24 h after injecting Ad-HO-1. HO-1 induced-BDNF/GDNF mRNA expression in substantia nigra was 26/21 folds of that of the contralateral Ad-injected side. The downstream product bilirubin increased GDNF expression through ERK and PI3K-Akt pathways, and also enhanced NFkappaB (p65 and p50) nuclear translocation in glia-enriched cultures. In addition, bilirubin also enhanced BDNF expression through similar pathway in cortical neuron-enriched cultures. We also examined the effect of another HO-1 product, CO, by using CO donor. [Ru(CO)3Cl2]2 increased neurotrophic factor expression via sGC-PKG pathway in both neuron and glia. These results indicate that the downstream products of HO-1, i.e. bilirubin and CO, modulate BDNF and GDNF expression in neuron and astrocyte.

Matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13) is involved in the degradation of extracellular matrix in many kinds of tissues. Here we found that hypoxia increased MMP-13 protein and mRNA levels in primary rat astrocyte cultures. Hypoxia stimulation also increased the secretion of MMP-13 from astrocytes, as shown by zymographic analysis. In addition, exposure to hypoxia up-regulated the expression of c-Fos and c-Jun time-dependently. Hypoxia-induced MMP-13 overexpression was antagonized by transfection with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (AS-ODN) of c-Fos or c-Jun. Furthermore, hypoxic-conditioned medium (Hx-CM) collected from astrocytes exposed to hypoxia increased paracellular permeability of adult rat brain endothelial cells (ARBECs). Administration of MMP-13 neutralizing antibody antagonized Hx-CM-induced paracellular permeability of ARBECs. Furthermore, pre-transfection of astrocytes with AS-ODN of c-Fos, c-Jun or MMP-13-shRNA significantly decreased hyperpermeability of ARBECs induced by Hx-CM. The arrangement of tight junction protein (TJP) zonular occludens-1 (ZO-1) of ARBECs disorganized in response to Hx-CM. Administration of Hx-CM to ARBECs also resulted in the production of proteolytic fragments of ZO-1, which was antagonized by transfection of MMP-13-shRNA in primary astrocytes. Administration of MMP-13 recombinant protein to ARBECs led to the disorganization and fragmentation of ZO-1 protein and also increased paracellular permeability. These results suggest that hypoxia-induced MMP-13 expression in astrocytes is regulated by c-Fos and c-Jun. MMP-13 is an important factor leading to the disorganization of ZO-1 and hyperpermeablility of blood–brain barrier in response to hypoxia. J. Cell. Physiol. 220: 163–173, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1), also known as CXCL12, and its receptor CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) express in various kinds of cells in central nervous system. The SDF-1/CXCR4 signaling pathway is regulated by diverse biological effects. SDF-1 is up-regulated in the ischemic penumbra following stroke and has been known to be associated with the homing of bone marrow cells to injury. However, the effect of SDF-1alpha/CXCR4 on cytokine production in microglia is mostly unknown. Here, we demonstrated that SDF-1alpha enhanced IL-6 production in both primary cultured microglia and BV-2 microglia. We further investigated the signaling pathway involved in IL-6 production stimulated by SDF-1alpha in microglia. SDF-1alpha increased IL-6 production in both protein and mRNA levels. These effects were attenuated by ERK, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), NF-kappaB inhibitors, and IkappaB protease inhibitor. Stimulation of microglia with SDF-1alpha also increased Akt and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. In addition, SDF-1alpha treatment also increased IkappaB kinase alpha/beta (IKK alpha/beta) phosphorylation, IkappaBalpha phosphorylation, IkappaBalpha degradation, p65 phosphorylation at Ser(276), translocation of p65 and p50 from cytosol to nucleus and kappaB-luciferase activity. Moreover, SDF-1alpha-mediated increase of kappaB-luciferase activity was inhibited by pre-transfection of DN-p85, DN-Akt or DN-ERK2. Increase of IKK alpha/beta phosphorylation and binding of p65 and p50 to the NF-kappaB element were both antagonized by PI3K and ERK inhibitors. Our results demonstrate a mechanism linking SDF-1alpha and IL-6, and provide additional support for the notion that SDF-1alpha plays a regulatory role in microglia activation.

Autophagy is a degradation pathway for the turnover of dysfunctional organelles or aggregated proteins in cells. Extracellular accumulation of beta-amyloid peptide has been reported to be a major cause of Alzheimer disease (AD) and large numbers of autophagic vacuoles accumulate in the brain of AD patient. However, how autophagic process is involved in Abeta-induced neurotoxicity and how Abeta peptide is transported into the neuron and metabolized is still unknown. In order to study the role of autophagic process in Abeta-induced neurotoxicity, EGFP-LC3 was overexpressed in SH-SY5Y cells (SH-SY5Y/pEGFP-LC3). It was found that treatment with Abeta(25-35), Abeta(1-42) or serum-starvation induced strong autophagy response in SH-SY5Y/pEGFP-LC3. Confocal double-staining image showed that exogenous application of Abeta(1-42) in medium caused the colocalization of Abeta(1-42) with LC3 in neuronal cells. Concomitant treatment of Abeta with a selective alpha7nAChR antagonist, alpha-bungarotoxin (alpha-BTX), enhanced Abeta-induced neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. On the other hand, nicotine (nAChR agonist) enhanced the autophagic process and also inhibited cell death following Abeta application. In addition, nicotine but not alpha-BTX increased primary hippocampal neuronal survival following Abeta treatment. Furthermore, using Atg7 siRNA to inhibit autophagosome formation in an early step or alpha7nAChR siRNA to knock down alpha7nAChR significantly enhanced Abeta-induced neurotoxicity. Confocal double-staining imaging shows that nicotine treatment in the presence of Abeta enhanced the colocalization of alpha7nAChR with autophagosomes. These results suggest that alpha7nAChR may act as a carrier to bind with eAbeta and internalize into cytoplasm and further inhibit Abeta-induced neurotoxicity via autophagic degradation pathway. Our results suggest that autophagy process plays a neuroprotective role against Abeta-induced neurotoxicity. Defect in autophagic regulation or Abeta-alpha7nAChR transport system may impair the clearance of Abeta and enhance neuronal death.

Leptin, the product of the obese gene, plays an important role in the regulation of body weight by coordinating metabolism, feeding behavior, energy balance, and neuroendocrine responses. However, regulation of leptin gene expression in the central nervous system is different from that in the adipocytes. In addition, leptin has been found in many tumor cell lines and has been shown to have mitogenic and angiogenic activity in a number of cell types. Glioma is the most common primary adult brain tumor with poor prognosis because of the spreading of tumor cell to the other regions of brain easily. Here we found that malignant C6 glioma cells expressed more leptin and leptin receptors than nonmalignant astrocytes. Furthermore, it was found that exogenous application of leptin enhanced the migration and invasion of C6 glioma cells. In addition, we found that the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13) but not of MMP-2 and MMP-9 was increased in response to leptin stimulation. The leptin-induced increase of cell migration and invasion was antagonized by MMP-13 neutralizing antibody or silencing MMP-13. The up-regulation of MMP-13 induced by leptin was mainly through p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB pathway. In addition, migration-prone sublines demonstrate that cells with increasing migration ability had more expression of MMP-13 and leptin. Taken together, these results indicate that leptin enhanced migration and invasion of C6 glioma cells through the increase of MMP-13 production.

Although much has been learned about the role of the amygdala in Pavlovian fear conditioning, relatively little is known about the signaling pathway involved in the acquisition of an active avoidance reaction. The aim of this study is to investigate the potentiating effects of the NO-guanylate cyclase activator YC-1 on learning and memory of shuttle avoidance test in rats. YC-1 enhanced the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) in amygdala through NO-cGMP-PKG-ERK pathway and the increase of BDNF expression. The Western blot and PCR methods were used to examine the signaling pathways involved in fear memory. It was found that YC-1 increased the avoidance responses during learning period and the memory retention lasted longer than one week. The enhancement of learning behavior by YC-1 was antagonized by intracerebroventricular injection of NOS inhibitor l-NAME, PKG inhibitor Rp-8-Br-PET-cGMPS and MEK inhibitor PD98059, indicating that NO-cGMP-PKG and ERK pathways are involved in the learning potentiating action of YC-1. In addition, YC-1 increased the activation of ERK and Akt 30 min after Day-1 training in amygdala. YC-1 also potentiated the expression of BDNF and CREB in response to fear memory test. Taken together, these findings suggest that NO-cGMP-PKG-ERK signaling pathway is involved in the action of YC-1 in enhancing the fear memory.

Thrombin is a key factor in the stimulation of fibrin deposition, angiogenesis and proinflammatory processes. Abnormalities in these processes are primary features of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in synovial tissues. We investigated the signaling pathway involved in IL-6 production caused by thrombin in synovial fibroblasts. Thrombin caused concentration- and time-dependent increases in IL-6 production. By using pharmacological inhibitors or activators or genetic inhibition by the protease activated receptor (PAR), siRNA revealed that the PAR1 receptor but not other PAR receptors is involved in thrombin-mediated up-regulation of IL-6. Thrombin-mediated IL-6 production was attenuated by thrombin inhibitor (PPACK), phospholipase C inhibitor (U73122), protein kinase C alpha inhibitor (Ro320432), Src inhibitor (PP2), NF-kappaB inhibitor (PDTC), I kappa B protease inhibitor (TPCK), or NF-kappaB inhibitor peptide. Stimulation of synovial fibroblasts with thrombin activated I kappa B kinase alpha/beta (IKK alpha/beta), I kappa B alpha phosphorylation, I kappa B alpha degradation, p65 phosphorylation at Ser(276), p65 and p50 translocation from the cytosol to the nucleus, and kappaB-luciferase activity. Thrombin-mediated an increase of IKK alpha/beta activity, kappaB-luciferase activity and p65 and p50 binding to the NF-kappaB element was inhibited by PPACK, U73122, Ro320432 and PP2. The binding of p65 and p50 to the NF-kappaB elements, as well as the recruitment of p300 and the enhancement of p50 acetylation on the IL-6 promoter was enhanced by thrombin. Our results suggest that thrombin increased IL-6 production in synovial fibroblasts via the PAR1 receptor/PI-PLC/PKC alpha/c-Src/NF-kappaB and p300 signaling pathway.

Introduction: The bone marrow microenvironment is further enriched by growth factors released during osteoclastic bone resorption. It has been reported that the chemokine interleukin (IL)-8 is a potent and direct activator of osteoclastic differentiation and bone resorption. However, the effect of bone-derived growth factors on the IL-8 production in human cancer cells and the promotion of osteoclastogenesis are largely unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate whether osteoblast-derived TGF-β1 is associated with osteolytic bone diseases. Materials and Methods: IL-8 mRNA levels were measured using RT-PCR analysis. MAPK phosphorylation was examined using the Western blot method. siRNA was used to inhibit the expression of TGF-β1, BMP-2, and IGF-1. DNA affinity protein-binding assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays were used to study in vitro and in vivo binding of c-fos, c-jun, p65, and p50 to the IL-8 promoter. A transient transfection protocol was used to examine IL-8, NF-κB, and activator protein (AP)-1 activity. Results: Osteoblast conditioned medium (OBCM) induced activation of IL-8, AP-1, and NF-κB promoter in human cancer cells. Osteoblasts were transfected with TGF-β1, BMP-2, or IGF-1 small interfering RNA, and the medium was collected after 48 h. TGF-β1 but not BMP-2 or IGF-1 siRNA inhibited OBCM-induced IL-8 release in human cancer cells. In addition, TGF-β1 also directly induced IL-8 release in human cancer cells. Activation of AP-1 and NF-κB DNA-protein binding and MAPKs after TGF-β1 treatment was shown, and TGF-β1–induced IL-8 promoter activity was inhibited by the specific inhibitors of MAPK cascades. Conclusions: In this study, we provide evidence to show that the osteoblasts release growth factors, including TGF-β1, BMP-2, and IGF-1. TGF-β1 is the major contributor to the activation of extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), leading to the activation of AP-1 and NF-κB on the IL-8 promoter and initiation of IL-8 mRNA and protein release, thereby promoting osteoclastogenesis.

Osteoporosis is a reduction in skeletal mass due to an imbalance between bone resorption and bone formation. Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) plays important roles in osteoblastic differentiation and bone formation. Therefore, components involved in BMP activation are good targets for the development of anti-osteoporosis drugs. In this study, imperatorin and bergapten, two coumarin derivatives, were shown to enhance alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, type I collagen synthesis and bone nodule formation in primary cultured osteoblasts. Imperatorin and bergapten increased mRNA levels of BMP-2 using quantitative RT-PCR, whereas the BMP-2 antagonist noggin attenuated the increase of ALP activity induced by imperatorin and bergapten, indicating that BMP-2 expression is required for the action of imperatorin and bergapten in osteoblastic maturation. Both imperatorin and bergapten enhanced the phosphorylation of SMAD (transcription factors activated by TGF-beta) 1/5/8, p38 and extracellular signal-regulated protein (ERK). Pretreatment of osteoblasts with p38 inhibitor (SB203580) or mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor (PD98059) or transfected with dominant negative mutant of p38 or ERK antagonized the elevation of BMP-2 expression and ALP activity induced by imperatorin and bergapten. Local administration of imperatorin or bergapten into the metaphysis of the tibia via the implantation of a needle cannula significantly increased the BMP-2 immunostaining and bone volume of secondary spongiosa in tibia. Taken together, our results provide evidence that coumarin derivatives increase BMP-2 expression and enhance bone formation in rat via the p38 and ERK-dependent signaling pathway.

It has been shown that ultrasound (US) stimulation accelerates fracture healing in the animal models and in clinical studies. However, the precise molecular events generated by US in chondrocytes have not been clarified well. Here we found that US stimulation transiently increased the surface expression of alpha2, alpha5, beta1 or beta3 but not alpha3 or alpha4 integrins in human chondrocytes, as shown by flow cytometric analysis. US stimulation increased prostaglandin E(2) formation as well as the protein and mRNA levels of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). At the mechanistic level, anti-integrin beta1 and beta3 antibodies or beta1 and beta3 integrin small interference RNA attenuated the US-induced COX-2 expression. Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) inhibitor (KP-392), Akt inhibitor, NF-kappaB inhibitor (PDTC) or IkappaB protease inhibitor (TPCK) also inhibited the potentiating action of US. US stimulation promotes kinase activity of ILK, phosphorylation of Akt. In addition, US stimulation also induces IKKalpha/beta phosphorylation, IkappaBalpha phosphorylation, IkappaBalpha degradation, p65 phosphorylation at Ser(276), p65 and p50 translocation from the cytosol to the nucleus, and kappaB-luciferase activity. The binding of p65 to the NF-kappaB element, as well as the recruitment of p300 and the enhancement of p50 acetylation on the COX-2 promoter was enhanced by US. Taken together, our results provide evidence that US stimulation increases COX-2 expression in chondrocytes via the integrin/ILK/Akt/NF-kappaB and p300 signaling pathway.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma), a ligand-activated transcription factor, is considered as an anti-osteoblastic factor associated with adiposity and the elderly osteoporosis due to a defect in osteoblastogenesis. We have found that oral administration of PPARgamma activator rosiglitazone decreased tibia BMD and serum ALP but left serum calcium and osteoclast marker C-terminal telopeptide unaffected. In addition, we examined the inhibitory mechanisms of PPARgamma on the bone formation by using PPARgamma activators ciglitazone and 15-deoxy-Delta(12,14)-prostaglandin-J2 (15d-PGJ2). Our data indicated that PPARgamma ligands decreased both mineralized bone nodules and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities in cultured primary osteoblasts. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) showed that the expression of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) and osteocalcin (OCN) was inhibited by ciglitizone and 15d-PGJ2. Furthermore, PPARgamma ligands inhibited NF-kappaB associated downstream COX-2 and iNOS osteogenic signaling. The ultrasound (US)-induced elevation of COX-2 and iNOS expression and nitric oxide (NO) production were attenuated in the presence of PPARgamma ligands. Furthermore, local administration of PPARgamma ligands into the metaphysis of rat tibia decreased the bone volume in secondary spongiosa. These results suggest that the activation of PPARgamma inhibits osteoblastic differentiation and the expression of several anabolic mediators involved in bone formation. These data may reflect osteoporosis and less bone formation in the aging people and patients treated with thiazolidinediones.

The use of an ultrasound contrast agent (UCA) with focused ultrasound sonication has the potential to disrupt the blood-brain barrier (BBB) noninvasively and reversibly at target locations. This study investigated the effects of UCA dose and ultrasound pressure on BBB disruption. Sonications were applied at 1 MHz with a burst length of 10 ms, a 1% duty cycle and a repetition frequency of 1 Hz. The duration of the sonication was 30 s. In in vivo experiments, 16 male Wistar rats were sonicated in the presence of UCA at four doses (0, 30, 60 and 90 microL/kg). BBB integrity was evaluated by injecting Evans blue (EB) into the femoral vein of anesthetized rats. The relationship between UCA dose and the region of EB extravasation was evaluated at ultrasound pressures of 0.9 and 1.2 MPa. The BBB disruption, as quantified by the amount of EB extravasation, was significantly greater in rats injected with UCA at a dose of 60 or 90 microL/kg than at a dose of 0 or 30 microL/kg. The amount of EB extravasation increased monotonically with the quantity of UCA injected into the femoral vein before sonication. Furthermore, the BBB disruption could be enhanced in the focal region relative to the surrounding region with a higher dose of UCA (60 or 90 microL/kg). This study demonstrates that BBB disruption can be both increased and localized to the focal region by injecting an appropriate quantity of UCA before performing focused ultrasound sonications.