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This paper looks at how individual preferences for the allocation of government spending change along the life cycle. Using the Life in Transition Survey II for 34 countries in Europe and Central Asia, the study finds that older individuals are less likely to support a rise in government outlays on education and more likely to support increases in spending on pensions. These results are very similar across countries, and they do not change when using alternative model specifications, estimation methods, and data sources. Using repeated cross-sections, the analysis controls for cohort effects and confirms the main results. The findings are consistent with a body of literature arguing that conflict across generations over the allocation of public expenditures may intensify in ageing economies.

The Middle East and North Africa region is in turmoil. Syria, Iraq, Libya and Yemen are in civil war, causing untold damage to human lives and physical infrastructure. Fifteen million people have fled their homes, many to fragile or economically strapped countries such as Jordan, Lebanon, Djibouti and Tunisia, giving rise to the biggest refugee crisis since World War II. Palestinians are reeling from deadly attacks and blockades. With recruits from all over the world, radicalized terrorist groups and sectarian factions like Daesh are spreading violence around the globe, threatening some governments' ability to perform basic functions. Countries undergoing political transitions, such as Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco and Jordan, face periodic attacks and political unrest, leading them to address security concerns over inclusive growth. Even relatively peaceful oil exporters, such as Algeria, Iran and the GCC, are grappling with youth unemployment and poor-quality public services, the same problems that contributed to the Arab Spring, alongside low oil prices. Finally, the author will develop and monitor input indicators that are consistent with the theory of change associated with the new strategy. We will have indicators that show whether our interventions are helping to renew the social contract (the use of citizen engagement in projects is an example). Household surveys can tell us whether the welfare of refugees and host communities is improving. Preparedness indicators can be used to inform progress on the recovery and reconstruction pillar. And standard indicators such as the share of electricity production that is traded will be used for the regional integration pillar.

Kosovo is one of the poorest countries in Europe (World Bank 2010). In 2009, 35 percent of the population lived below the poverty line. This note was prepared primarily as a key input to the Kosovo country partnership strategy (FY2012 to FY2015) and aims to provide an overview of gender disparities in three major domains: human capital, labor market, and entrepreneurship. The note provides a broad picture of gender disparities in Kosovo in education, health, and access to economic opportunities. Lack of statistical data on Kosovo, and particularly of gender-disaggregated data, limits the depth and scope of this gender diagnostic. Men and women in Kosovo have lower education levels than men and women in the European Union (EU). Women comprise less than 10 percent of all entrepreneurs and 0.3 percent of top management positions. This note is organized as follows: section one highlights gender differences in human capital focusing on education and health outcomes; section two describes men's and women's relative employment patterns; section three focuses on gender disparities in entrepreneurship and career advancement in business and politics; and section four provides concluding observations.