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The survival of five mycoplasma strains was studied in different storage media (Mycoplasma complet media without cryopreservative agent, Mycoplasma complete media with addition of horse serum, Mycoplasma complete media with addition of glycerol and lyophilized cultures without stabilizer) under different temperatures (+37°C, +4°C, −20°C, −85°C) during 24 months. Five Mycoplasma strains, Mycoplasma mycoides subsp mycoides (Mmm), Mycoplasma bovis (Mb), Mycoplasma agalactiae (Ma), Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg) and Mycoplasma synoviae (Ms) were isolated from various parts of the country. The initial titers of the strains determined by the agar plate count before storage were 42.4×107 UFC/ml (8.6 log UFC/ml) for Mmm strain; 32.4×108 UFC/ml (9.51 log UFC/ml) for M.bovis strain; 12.4×109 UFC/ml (10.09 log UFC/ml) for Ma strain; 2.4×109 UFC/ml (9.38 log UFC/ml) for Mg and 2.8×109 UFC/ml (9.45 log UFC/ml) for Ms strain. After 3 weeks of storage, no viable mycoplasmas were detected in all the conservation media at +37°C and after 3 months of storage at +4°C except for the lyophilized cultures in which an average viability rate of 17.81% was observed. Overall, the mycoplasma strains remained viable at freezing temperatures after 24 months regardless of the storage medium, but with decreasing titers, which was noticeable with mycoplasma complete media, and mycoplasma media with horse serum. Conversely, at −20°C the average viability rates after 24 months of storage were 84.36% (with glycerol) and 90.04% (lyophilized cultures). At −85°C after 24 months of storage, this was 87.98% (with glycerol) and 91.44% (lyophilized cultures). These findings suggest that, in the absence of the lysophylisation process, the addition of glycerol may be recommended for long-term storage of frozen mycoplasma isolates.

The burden of infectious diseases in livestock and other animals continues to be a major constraint to sustained agricultural development, food security, and participation of developing and in-transition countries in the economic benefits of international trade in livestock commodities. Targeted measures must be instituted in those countries to reduce the occurrence of infectious diseases. Quality veterinary vaccines used strategically can and should be part of government sanctioned-programmes. Vaccination campaigns must be part of comprehensive disease control programmes, which, in the case of transboundary animal diseases, require a regional approach if they are to be successful. This paper focuses on the salient transboundary animal diseases and examines current vaccine use, promising vaccine research, innovative technologies that can be applied in countries in some important developing regions of the world, and the role of public/private partnerships.

An improved direct fluorescent antibody test was evaluated for specificity and efficacy in diagnosing mycoplasmal pneumonia of swine. A sequential study was carried out in which pigs inoculated with a pneumonic lung suspension containing Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae strain 11 were euthanatized at postinoculation (PI) weeks 2 to 12. Fluorescent coating of M hyopneumoniae was detected primarily on bronchial and bronchiolar epithelial surfaces of lungs with gross lesions of pneumonia. Fluorescence was observed to be most intense at PI weeks 4 to 6, with a tendency to decrease in intensity from PI weeks 8 to 12. This indicated that there may be a decrease in number of M hyopneumoniae cells in the more advanced stages of the disease. The use of a counterstain (chelated azo-dye) provided an excellent color contrast and permitted making unambiguous interpretation of results.

La presente etude visait a evaluer l’effet de l’oxytetracycline longue action (oxytetracycline LA) dans le traitement des bovins atteints de peripneumonie contagieuse bovine (PPCB) et de determiner le risque de transmission de la maladie a partir d’animaux traites. Une transmission experimentale a ete conduite par la mise en contact de 16 bovins cliniquement sains et seronegatifs vis-a-vis des anticorps contre M. mycoides subsp. mycoides Small Colony (MmmSC) avec 14 bovins naturellement infectes de la maladie et traites avec l’oxytetracycline LA. L’experimentation a dure 10 mois pendant lesquels tous les animaux ont ete suivis cliniquement et preleves a intervalles reguliers pour analyses de laboratoire. Des examens post mortem ont ete realises sur tous les animaux afin de deceler des lesions caracteristiques de PPCB et aussi de prelever des echantillons pour analyses de laboratoire. Le traitement des animaux infectes par l’oxytetracycline LA a cliniquement gueri la grande majorite d’entre eux (12/14). Tous les 14 animaux ont seroconverti et l’analyse post-mortem a montre la presence des lesions chroniques dont des sequestres pulmonaires chez 4 d’entre eux; MmmSC a ete seulement isole a partir de ces sequestres. Toutefois les 16 animaux sains mis en contact avec ces 14 animaux sont demeures cliniquement sains durant toute la periode d’experimentation; a l’autopsie aucune lesion caracteristique de la PPCB n’a ete notee et les analyses de laboratoire sont restees negatives. Les resultats de la presente etude peuvent avoir des implications importantes dans le controle de la PPCB en Afrique. Mots-cles: Peripneumonie contagieuse bovine - Antibiotherapie - Oxytetracycline -Transmission experimentale - Sequestres pulmonaires - Mali This study evaluated the effect of long-acting oxytetracycline (Oxytetracycline LA) in the treatment of cattle infested with contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and to determine the risk of disease transmission from animals treated. Experimental transmission was conducted by contacting 16 cattle clinically healthy and seronegative vis-a-vis the antibodies against M. mycoides subsp. mycoides Small Colony (MmmSC) 14 cattle naturally infected with the disease and treated with oxytetracycline LA. The experiment lasted 10 months during which all animals were monitored clinically and sampled at regular intervals for laboratory analysis. Post-mortem examinations were performed on all animals to detect lesions characteristic of CBPP and also take samples for laboratory analysis. The treatment of animals infected with oxytetracycline LA clinically cured a large majority of them (12/14). All 14 animals were seroconverted and post-mortem analysis showed the presence of chronic lesions including pulmonary sequestrations in 4 of them; MmmSC was only isolated from these receivers. However the 16 healthy animals in contact with these 14 animals remained clinically healthy throughout the experimental period, at autopsy no lesions characteristic of CBPP has been noted and laboratory tests were negative. The results of this study may have important implications in the control of CBPP in Africa. Keywords: Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia - Antibiotic - Oxytetracycline-Experimental transmission - Pulmonary lesions - Mali

No sleeping sickness or nagana cases have been reported in Botswana since 1985. In view of several confirmed clinical cases of nagana and reports of heavy bovine mortality, a parasitological survey was conducted to determine the prevalence of trypanosome infection in cattle in Maun and Shakawe areas of Ngamiland district. Wet blood films, buffy coat and Giemsa-stained thick and thin blood smears were used to detect trypanosomes in animals. Overall,trypanosome infection rate was 15.98%, with 5.94% and 27.29% in Maun and Shakawe respectively. The urgent need to combat trypanosomosis in Ngamiland, particularly in the Shakawe area, is highlighted, and a 3-phase integrated tsetse control strategy for this disease problem is discussed.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) or lung sickness, is an insidious pneumonic disease of cattle caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides small colony variant (MmmSC) and it is one of the major diseases affecting cattle in Africa. With the imminent eradication of rinderpest from Africa (Somali ecosystem) CBPP has become the disease of prime concern in terms of epizootics that affect cattle on the continent. The control and/or eradication of the disease have suffered from unsustained control actions due to lack of operational funds to support such actions and deterioration in the quality of veterinary services in many countries affected by the disease. Stamping out procedures which were adopted by Botswana to control the disease (1995-1997) cannot be carried out by many countries currently affected by CBPP due to the high financial cost, the widespread nature of disease, animal welfare considerations and the potential loss of a valuable genetic resource base. The current scenario of CBPP disease epidemiology in sub-Saharan Africa requires that proactive measures are taken to safeguard countries in southern Africa which are currently free from CBPP from being contaminated by the disease thus affecting the beef industry and people's livelihoods; and to progressively control the disease in endemic zones of Western and Central Africa. This presentation discusses the epidemiology of CBPP in Africa, diagnosis of the disease, regional strategies that could be deployed to prevent and control the spread of the disease on the continent and research thrusts on CBPP.

BRUCELLOSIS due to Brucella melitensis causes reproductive wastage and reduced milk production in affected livestock and is an important zoonosis. The disease in human beings is serious and long-lasting, and often results in chronic and disabling sequelae. In Tajikistan, the disease was apparently reasonably well controlled in Soviet times by a state-mandated control programme that relied mainly on test and slaughter and some vaccination with Brucella abortus strain 82 vaccine. The serious deterioration in disease control programmes following independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 led to disease breakdowns like those experienced in similarly affected countries such as Kazakhstan (Taleski and others 2002) and Kosovo (Jackson and others 2004). There are now widespread concerns among public health agencies that the incidence of the disease in human beings is increasing, but lack of funds, numerous small farm units, outdated legislation, disruption to communications in winter and uncontrolled movements of livestock are major impediments to the disease control programmes undertaken by the Tajikistan Ministry of Agriculture. Subsistence farming has been widely practised in Tajikistan since the early 1990s following the divestment of state-owned collective farming systems to private ownership of animals. Now, approximately 80 per cent of households own livestock, mostly sheep and goats and smaller numbers of cattle. Kishlak (village) household flocks and herds are grazed collectively close by as a unit for most of the year, but many kishlaks participate in annual migrations to highaltitude summer pastures where the flocks and herds are grazed collectively. The productivity of the livestock is generally low owing to poor utilisation of pastures, uncontrolled breeding, low reproduction rates, and high mortalities of young sheep and goats due to diseases such as peste des petits ruminants and foot-and-mouth disease. The objectives of this survey were, first, to determine the seroprevalence of brucellosis in sheep and goats in two of the four oblasts (provinces) in Tajikistan, that is, the Region of Republican Subordination (RRS) and Khatlon, in sheep, goats and cattle in urban kishlaks (suburban villages) in the cities of Kurgan Tube and Dushanbe, and in cattle on 11 government dairy farms; and secondly, to provide information that could be used in human and animal disease control programmes.

The burden of infectious diseases in livestock and other animals continues to be a major constraint to sustained agricultural development, food security, and participation of developing and in-transition countries in the economic benefits of international trade in livestock commodities. Targeted measures must be instituted in those countries to reduce the occurrence of infectious diseases. Quality veterinary vaccines used strategically can and should be part of government sanctioned-programmes. Vaccination campaigns must be part of comprehensive disease control programmes, which, in the case of transboundary animal diseases, require a regional approach if they are to be successful. This paper focuses on the salient transboundary animal diseases and examines current vaccine use, promising vaccine research, innovative technologies that can be applied in countries in some important developing regions of the world, and the role of public/private partnerships.

Cystic hydatidosis is a zoonotic disease that remain as a significant cause of human morbidity and mortality in many parts of the world. The disease has veterinary public health implications. FAO is involved with some activities in the control of echinococcosis/hydatid disease: within the Animal Production and Health Division the Veterinary Public Health (VHP) Programme is constituted by members of the different Services (Animal Health, Animal Production, and Livestock Policy) within the Division. FAO regular programme has also established a global network of professionals directly involved in VPH. Furthermore FAO's Technical Cooperation Projects (TCP) is a tool to assist member countries in responding to urgent and unforeseen demands.

No sleeping sickness or nagana cases have been reported in Botswana since 1985. In view of several confirmed clinical cases of nagana and reports of heavy bovine mortality, a parasitological survey was conducted to determine the prevalence of trypanosome infection in cattle in Maun and Shakawe areas of Ngamiland district. Wet blood films, buffy coat and Giemsa-stained thick and thin blood smears were used to detect trypanosomes in animals. Overall,trypanosome infection rate was 15.98%, with 5.94% and 27.29% in Maun and Shakawe respectively. The urgent need to combat trypanosomosis in Ngamiland, particularly in the Shakawe area, is highlighted, and a 3-phase integrated tsetse control strategy for this disease problem is discussed.

Clinical Borrelia theileri infection was reported for the first time in cattle from Botswana concurrent with Babesia bovis and Theileria mutans infections. Two animals, an ox and a cow of the Tswana breed demonstrated clinical signs of fever, haemoglobinuria, inappetance, diarrhoea, pallor of mucous membranes, enlarged superficial lymph nodes and rough hair coats. Examination of the blood smears from the affected animals revealed numerous B. theileri, and very few B. bovis and T. mutans organisms. Oxytetracycline was administered parenterally to all the animals in the herd. The ox, being extremely weak and recumbent for the previous 4-5 days, succumbed to death the day after the examination. The clearance of spirochaetes from the blood circulation and recovery of the cow three days after treatment with oxytetracycline suggest an involvement of B. theileri in producing clinical disease.

Ischaemia and terminal tissue dry gangrene are among the sequels of Salmonella infection. Up to now, these lesions had been described in Europe and in Chile, on calf exclusively. This time, the syndrome was observed on adult cattle reared in the Accra Plains (Ghana) and infected by S. typhimurium. This case give evidence of the spreading of salmonellosis on the African continent and should foster the search of adequate control measures.

Bovine farcy is described for the first time in Ghana in herds kept in the Aveyime area of the Accra Plains. Reasons why the disease seems confined to a small geographical area are not yet clear. Different breeds of cattle are equally affected. Mineral deficiencies were not observed in the samples taken for analysis (Ca, Mg, P, Na, K, Cl). Limited examination of tick population on cattle showed a predominance of A. variegatum. Factors enhancing the pathogenicity and persistence of the Mycobacterium are still not clear. A study is soon to start.

This collection of articles provides an account of the papers delivered at the 19th International Conference of the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP) (held in New Orleans, LA, USA, from 10 to 14 August 2003) in a symposium session on assessing the burden of Taenia solium cysticercosis and echinococcosis organised and chaired by A. Lee Willingham III from the WHO/FAO Collaborating Center for Research and Training on Emerging and other Parasitic Zoonoses in Denmark and Peter M. Schantz from the Parasitic Diseases Division of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA. The focus was on the persistence of the zoonotic parasitic diseases cysticercosis, caused by the pork tapeworm T. solium, and echinococcosis, caused by species of the tapeworm Echinococcus, and why these diseases are given very little attention on the national and international agendas in spite of the availability of tools to detect, treat, control and prevent them when it is quite clear in most instances that they are clearly associated with and help perpetuate poverty. A major reason for this is that in many endemic areas the presence and impact of these diseases are not known due to the lack of investigation and information thus policy makers are not aware of their burden and benefits of their control. Documentation is also needed to help increase awareness of the international community and hopefully result in financial and technical support being made available. Thus, burden assessments of cysticercosis and echinococcosis provide an essential evidence base for securing political will and financial and technical support as well as providing a basis for cost-benefit analysis of prevention and control efforts. In order to make an appropriate and full burden assessment one must consider the health, agricultural, social and other impacts of these parasitic zoonoses comprehensively. During the symposium presentations were given concerning current ongoing initiatives to assess the burden of cysticercosis and echinococcosis and examples of the impact of these diseases in both developing and developed countries were provided. In addition, cost factors related to vaccines for these cestode diseases were discussed and the possibilities for technical and financial support from multilateral agencies for assessments and interventions presented.

This collection of articles provides an account of the papers delivered at the 19th International Conference of the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP)(held in New Orleans, LA, USA, from 10 to 14 August 2003) in a symposium session on assessing the burden of Taenia solium cysticercosis and echinococcosis organised and chaired by A. Lee Willingham III from the WHO/FAO Collaborating Center for Research and Training on Emerging and other Parasitic Zoonoses in Denmark and Peter M. Schantz from the Parasitic Diseases Division of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA. The focus was on the persistence of the zoonotic parasitic diseases cysticercosis, caused by the pork tapeworm T. solium, and echinococcosis,caused by species of the tapeworm Echinococcus, and why these diseases are given very little attention on the national and international agendas in spite of the availability of tools to detect, treat,control and prevent them when it is quite clear in most instances that they are clearly associated with and help perpetuate poverty. A major reason for this is that in many endemic areas the presence and impact of these diseases are not known due to the lack of investigation and information thus policymakers are not aware of their burden and benefits of their control. Documentation is also needed to help increase awareness of the international community and hopefully result in financial and technical support being made available. Thus, burden assessments of cysticercosis and echinococcosis provide an essential evidence base for securing political will and financial and technical support as well as providing a basis for cost-benefit analysis of prevention and control efforts. In order to make an appropriate and full burden assessment one must consider the health, agricultural, social and other impacts of these parasitic zoonoses comprehensively. During the symposium presentations were given concerning current ongoing initiatives to assess the burden of cysticercosis and echinococcosis and examples of the impact of these diseases in both developing and developed countries were provided. In addition, cost factors related to vaccines for these cestode diseases were discussed and the possibilities for technical and financial support from multilateral agencies for assessments and interventions presented.