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The overview article deals with the current issue of contamination detection. Unfortunately,the threat of the possibility of using weapons of mass destruction in a local conflict caused byRussia cannot be excluded. In addition, analysing contemporary threats, it is necessary to take intoaccount the possibility of activity of terrorists using improvised explosive devices with acetone andurotropin peroxides. The country’s contamination reconnaissance (detection) system is technicallyand procedurally outdated compared to NATO solutions. Point detectors and patrols operating in thearea of contamination domi-nate, while in NATO armies remote systems, e.g., using lidar techniques,unmanned means, etc., are used. Poland has all the elements to establish this type of contaminationreconnaissance system.Keywords: chemical sciences, improvised explosive devices, detection and monitoring of contamination.

The article deals with the current issue, which is the protection of the soldier after contamination, including the restoration of the so-called immediate liquidation of contamination in the Polish Armed Forces. Elimination of contamination is the only element of the system of defence against weapons of mass destruction (WMD), in which the recovery of soldiers, equipment, and technology after contamination occurs. The most important element of decontamination is immediate elimination of contamination as it may affect health and often life of the contaminated persons. According to the conducted research, the effect of chemical weapon (CW) is almost instantaneous, and fabric coverings slightly delay the effect of poisoning. The guided 2020 doctrinal document DD /3.8(B) contains the main principles for conducting immediate decontamination, which are inconsistent with other documents. It is important to recognise that waiting for a commander’s order or postponing the elimination of contamination of the exposed skin surfaces or uniforms can be tragic in its consequences. Keywords: chemical sciences, defense against weapons of mass destruction, protection of the soldier, immediate elimination of contamination

This material presents the general principles of use and classification of collective means of protection against contamination. Functional and operational recommendations for collective protection measures are specified and the ventilation system for facilities is described depending on the type of facility. Keywords: chemical sciences, security sciences, weapons of mass destruction, collective protection

The paper characterizes the problem of air pollution with smog. The possibility of SARS-CoV-2 virus transmission on particulate matter and the possibility of infection was analyzed. Individual respiratory protection measures available on the market were analyzed in terms of mass use, taking into account legal and normative requirements. Keywords: personal protective equipment, respiratory protection

In this paper, the problems of elimination of surface contamination with biological substances were characterised. The possibility of SARS-CoV-2 virus contamination of various surfaces was analysed. Disinfection processes were characterised, including the method using hydrogen peroxide gas. The test results of disinfection effectiveness and material compatibility of selected products, mainly these made of paper, disinfected by means of hydrogen peroxide gas were presented.

The requirements for mobile collective protection measures for purification elements, against contamination agents were characterized. The methodology and results of penetration tests of the DEHS standard aerosol spray through the material and filtration package as well as dust absorber used in mobile contamination protection agents are presented. Keywords: filtering equipment, leakproofness of mobile protective equipment, HEPA and ULPA class filters.

The article is devoted to a vital issue for the Polish Armed Forces, namely to the containment and elimination of contaminations. The main factors which are likely to cause the direct or indirect release of hazardous substances and the emergence of contaminations in the territory of the Republic of Poland (RP) include military operations, disasters and technical failures in industrial facilities, as well as terror-ism. The containment and elimination of contamination is an element of the WMD defense system, in which the combat capability of the army’s troops, equipment and military technology is restored after a contamination. The most important element of the system is the immediate elimination of contamination, as it can affect the health, and often also the life, of the contaminated. The doctrinal document DD/3.8(A) contains the main principles for immediate containment, the main one being “as soon as possible”. It is important to be aware that the so-called insulating protective clothing does not provide adequate protection for the skin and uniforms. At the same time, it can be a source of secondary contamination. Technical equipment comprising individual packages will suffice, but the Polish Armed Forces should acquire one IPLS-type decontamination package with pharmacological agents and a new skin disinfectant. Such solutions are preferred in NATO armies.

The paper describes the operational decontamination as a system for protection of troops in case of threat of contamination in functional and task-related terms. A critical analysis of technical equipment and post-contamination procedures is presented. Keywords: nuclear, biological and chemical defence, decontamination, disinfection, deactivation

In the paper, the general information regarding the air purification in permanent defence facilities is presented. The hazards for breathing system are discussed. The group measures for a protection against contamination are characterized from functional and exploitation point of view. The ways to protect objects against infiltration of contaminated air are discussed. The filtering and ventilation systems (UFW) are presented as the basic devices for purifying, ventilation, and recirculation of air. This paper contains technological information regarding UFW exploitation in collective protection shelters. Keywords: protection against contamination, filtering equipment

This paper characterizes the problem of matching masks that are part of individual means of protection against contamination. The method of matching masks in the Polish Armed Forces with the use of irritating chemical agents such as chloropicrin and CS was analyzed. The paper presents the results of tests on the matching of modern filtering masks using the optoelectronic method during long-term use. They were analyzed and compared with the results of the reference method ‒ total internal leakage. Keywords: defense against weapons of mass destruction, individual protective equipment, fitting filter masks

This paper characterizes the tasks assigned to pollution protection measures, in particular mobile pollution protection measures. General principles of protection against contamination, using filter ventilation systems “UFW”, are presented. The problem was discussed and the method of testing the general tightness of movable means present in the SZ of RP was analyzed. The methodology and the results of tests for general tightness of mobile objects of protection against pollution are presented. Keywords: defense against weapons of mass destruction, filter ventilation systems, tightness of movable protection means

Aim: The aim of this paper is to present ion mobility spectrometry as a method for the local detection of chemical contaminants. Introduction: According to the doctrine currently in force in the Military Forces of the Republic of Poland, contamination reconnaissance is the action aimed at identifying the occurrence of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) incidents or the presence of a CBRN agent in the environment. It involves observation, detection and specific contamination reconnaissance. Observation is the systematic tracking of the airspace, ground areas, people, animals and materials. Devices of visual, sound, electronic and photographic observation or other devices enabling the identification of a CBRN incident or the presence of a CBRN agent in the environment are used for that purpose. Detection is the action aimed at confirming the occurrence of a CBRN incident or the presence of a CBRN agent in the environment while specific reconnaissance is the action taken to specify the type and level of contaminants in the area once the occurrence of a CBRN incident or the presence of a CBRN agent in the environment is confirmed. Contamination reconnaissance should be prepared and performed as appropriate to the threat level. Moreover, the equipment and operating procedures employed to that end should ensure immediate alerts on the presence of CBRN agents. The current technological advancement of equipment used by fire brigades requires that fire and rescue operations take into account the careful identification of threats which may be present during the operation. The necessity for carrying out reconnaissance results from the nature of buildings under fire. While preparing measures for fighting fires of dangerous chemicals present at a given location and their properties, one should take into account chemical weapon agents (CWAs), toxic industrial chemicals (TICs), explosives, gases creating flammable or self-igniting mixtures, radioactive sources, etc. Conclusions: Contamination threats in the territory of the Republic of Poland are on an upward trend. The entities included in the National System of Contamination Detection and Alerting should be prepared, in both technical and procedural terms, for conducting reconnaissance and initial identification of contaminants at the place of their occurrence. The system is equipped with devices using ion mobility spectrometry (IMS). According to global trends, these devices should be successively replaced with solutions characterised by better sensitivity and selectivity. New devices could be based on differential mobility spectrometry (DMS). This solution should apply to portable and transportable instruments. The application of new technical solutions should be accompanied by the unification of the system in the area of contamination reconnaissance and the creation of cooperation plans, and this would have a significant impact on the safety of people and infrastructure.

Aim: The aim of this paper is to present the current state of knowledge on the reconnaissance of contamination in the automatic system by unmanned means. Introduction: The hypothetical threat of contamination in the territory of the Republic of Poland (RP) is growing. This threat may be caused by technolog-ical disasters and technical failures in industrial plants (including nuclear power plants) and also uncontrolled releases of highly toxic chemicals during transport, and in some cases, which cannot be ruled out, also by terrorism. This work introduces the dilemmas of the contamination reconnaissance system of the Polish Armed Forces, mainly their technical and organisational elements. It presents technical studies that have been used in NATO armies for the automated reconnaissance (detection) of contaminations. The basic operation of the system for the performance of its tasks is proposed. The implementation of automated systems would significantly increase the effectiveness of the Reconnaissance System of the Polish Armed Forces (SWS SZ RP), but also of other civil functional subsystems in the National Alert and Detection System (KSWSiA). Automated recognition systems have many advantages such as there being no need to expose staff to contamination and high mobility. Conclusions: There is a real threat that the territory of the Republic of Poland could become contaminated through the uncontrolled release of highly toxic chemicals from over 400 industrial plants that could be potential sources of major failures. Releases to the environment may be caused by natural factors (e.g. hurricanes, floods, earthquakes) or by unintentional (e.g. human error) or deliberate (e.g. act of terrorism) human activity. This analysis should not ignore threats posed by nuclear reactors located near the borders of the Republic of Poland and by pathogens. The Contamination Detection System of the Polish Armed Forces is incompatible in procedural terms with analogous solutions existing in NATO member states. In these countries it is preferable to use automated systems based on the latest technological developments, while in the Polish Armed Forces the systems employed are manually operated and obsolete. CBRN information management should be not only an instructional record, but a real element of the Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Defence (CBRN Defence) system. The task involving risk assessment and forecasting should be an anticipatory task based on present inventory levels in plants and contribute to planning the deployment of the elements of the Contamination Detection System. The contamination reconnaissance system, modelled on the basis of the solutions available in NATO armies, should employ automatic means such as lidar, drones and robots or their joint implementation – drones with lidar, robots with lidar or dropped micro-pallets (with a set of sensors and a signal analysis and alerting system) with a specific service life (e.g. 24 h) – such as the US Organic Air Vehicle.

The work describes the elimination of contamination as a system for securing troops in the event of contamination in a functional and task approach. A critical analysis of technical equipment and post-contamination procedures was presented. Keywords: nuclear, biological and chemical defence, decontamination, decontamination, disinfection, deactivation.

This material characterises the defense against weapons of mass destruction, as a system of security forces in case of risks of contamination (infections) in functional and performance-oriented terms. The basic technical equipment of the troops of the Polish Armed Forces is presented. It can be divided into the equipment and resources to identify contamination, protection against contamination, and decontamination. Keywords: defense against weapons of mass destruction, equipment for protection against contamination

This paper is a study of military optical identification and guidance solutions. The technical measures used in the Polish Armed Forces for smoke screen deployment and their relation to IR camouflage were analysed. Keywords: reconnaissance, identification, counter-identification, counter-reconnaissance, camouflage, smoke

The paper characterises methods of defence for use against weapons of mass destruction, as a form of troop protection system in the event of a contamination (infection) hazard from both the functional and the task-oriented perspective. The basic equipment of troops are described, taking into account the classification of equipment and the means used for: identification of the contamination, protection from the contamination, and the elimination of the contamination in terms of personal protection. Keywords: protection against weapons of mass destruction, equipment, personal protection of soldiers

The paper describes general rules for the use of collective protection against contamination. There are presented certain recommendations for functional and operational requirements in the case of collective protection measures. The functional and maintenance recommendations are described in the field of the collective protection against modern agents in the concern of the hardened facilities in relation to the ventilation systems and objects themselves. Individual protection is a key element of dealing in the massive destruction weapon (MDW) environment. The protective cloth provides the capability of working in a contaminated area but it makes individuals less operable and effective, also in the lasting. The common collec-tive protection is organized for people (solders or civilians) to be able to operate in a contaminated area. It means, that there are necessary certain facilities which protect personnel against toxics. The point of the collective protection is to keep an environment adequate for defense missions, rest, or decontamination. These facilities give more light feeling in the physical and psychological sense of dealing without the individual protective cloth. There is also a description of the ventilation system’ objects, depending on the type of collective protection systems. Keywords: construction, chemical toxics, protection of exercising personnel and natural environment

The paper presents the analysis of the present situation in the concern of the public protection against modern toxics by using the light type of shelters. The object of laboratory tests in the chemical agents’ environment is the complete light shelter (tent), called No-1 which is designed for the military purpose as the mobile command post at the brigade level. The point of concern is given to characteristics of the tent construction and its tactical-technical parameters. After the tests, there was discovered that the light type shelter provides the personnel protection against chemical or biological agents that could be find in the air as the BC agents or industrial toxics. The air inside the tent shelter is pressurized and decontaminated by the special NBC filters and the device is called UFW-900-2C. This filter set is equipped with adequate electronic controller and parts which provide an effective air cleaning and sufficient flow across the tent, and finally this composition works as the efficient, complete set. Keywords: construction, public protection, light type protection, NBC filtration

The paper presents the problems related to exercises that allow to prepare people, military equipment, and other rescue groups to prevent and minimize the number of victims in the case of the use of modern means of poisonous or radioactive ones. Such exercises can be carried out in the facility that is hermetically separated from the external environment, and a functional system of chambers allows to exercise and carry out activities that may occur in the real world after the use of toxic or radioactive warfare agents. These agents could cause disease in humans and degradation of natural environment. The tunnel enables to hold adequate exercises that familiarize practitioners with the correct principles to identify the toxic substance, and then to follow safe handling of their disposal with uniforms, weapons, and equipment. Certain chambers do protection of the skin and the respiratory tract against a particular toxin through a secure procedure for removing protective clothing and bath under the shower disinfectant and hygiene, to finally wear clean clothing or uniforms. Keywords: construction, chemical toxics, protection of exercising personnel and natural environment

It has become increasingly important to monitor environment contamination by such chemicals as chemical warfare agents (CWAs) and industrial toxic chemicals (TICs), as well as radiation hazards around and inside collective protection facilities. This is especially important given the increased risk of terrorist or military attacks. The Military Institute of Chemistry and Radiometry (MICR) has constructed and developed the ALERT device for the effective monitoring of these threats. This device uses sensors that detect chemical and radiological contaminations in the air. The CWA detector is an ion mobility spectrometer, TICs are detected by electrochemical sensors, and radiation hazards are detected via Geiger–Muller tubes. The system was designed to protect the crew from contamination. When chemical or radioactive contamination is detected at the air inlet for the shelter, air filtration through a carbon filter is activated. At this time, the air test procedure at the filter outlet is started to test the condition of the filter on an ongoing basis. After detecting contamination at the filter outlet, the system turns off the air pumping and the service can start the procedure of replacing the damaged carbon filter. This paper presents the results of laboratory testing of the ALERT gas alarm detector, which showed high measurements for important parameters, including sensitivity, repeatability, accuracy, and speed.

Currently, the territory of the Republic of Poland faces a growing threat of contamination with its sources in catastrophes and technical failures in industrial plants (including nuclear power plants) and uncontrolled release of high-toxic chemicals during transport and, which cannot be excluded, terrorism. The increased level of threat resulting from, among others, those factors caused that the National Contamination Detection and Alerting Systems (KSWiA) with the Contamination Detection System of the Polish Armed Forces as the system coordinator was established in the Republic of Poland in 2006. This paper presents the outline of the aerial system of contamination detection, mainly its technical elements, based on the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) carrying on board basic and special-purpose equipment. The elementary way of operating the system while performing tasks as well as requirements for its maintenance and handling have been proposed. Introduction of UAV systems would greatly increase the effectiveness of the Contamination Detection System of the Polish Armed Forces, but also other civilian functional subsystems of KSWSiA. There are many advantages to using them, such as no need to expose personnel to contamination and an enemy impact, high mobility, maneuverability and the capability to operate under difficult terrain conditions.