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The aim of the research was to verify the function of the soil model area (SMA) in the Ostrów Mazowiecka Forest District and the possibility of using it in conducting scientific research and practical improvement of forest management in Poland. SMA with an area of 470.5 ha is located in the eastern part of the Puszcza Biała forest (52°73'68"N, 21°87'35"E) in the Masovian−Podlasie nature−forest region. The Puszcza Biała is a large, compact forest complex located in the lower basin of the Bug and Narew rivers, with an area of about 51 thousand ha. It is one of the poorest forest areas in the country in terms of habitat and species richness, and it is subject to very small negative human influence. It is situated in the area of the Central Polish glaciation (Warthanian, MIS 6), covered mainly with plainly shaped fluvioglacial (sander) sands. In the 1970s, the State Forests National Forest Holding and the Soil Science Society of Poland established all over the country 139 SMAs with an average area of 405.5 ha (minimum 300 ha) and a total area of 56529 ha. The aim of the SMAs was to preserve the typical (model) soils for a given region, which were to constitute a permanent comparative base for conducting scientific research and practical training of foresters. The following soil groups occur on the studied SMA: Brunic Arenosols covered with fresh mixed coniferous forest, Stagnosols covered with fresh mixed coniferous forest and fresh mixed broadleaved forest, Haplic Phaeozem covered with wet mixed coniferous forest and wet mixed broadleaved forest, as well as Gleyic Phaeozem and Murshic Histosols covered with alder forest. The dominant Brunic Arenosols, covering 87% of the area, are very well developed, close to the natural ones. They have an appropriate sequence of genetic−diagnostic horizons, including high thickness of sideric horizon, showing typical morphological, physicochemical properties, texture and developed a characteristic moder humus type. Common and very well developed Brunic Arenosols, developed from sander sand on the studied SMA, justify its creation and preservation. It is a place to secure the model Brunic Arenosols profiles that can be used as a comparative (control) base in scientific research and in forest practice., Sylwan 165 (3): 223-232

Private forests in Poland occupy an area of 1788 thousand ha, including 1683 thousand ha of forests owned by the natural persons. There are usually 2−3 forest plots constituting single ownership. According to the Act on forests, the supervision over forest management in private forests is carried out by the county authorities. They may entrust it to the managers of the State Forests units on the basis of an individual agreement. Due to the adopted solutions, supervision over forest management in private forests is dispersed. The aim of the research was to present: forest owners (farmers) assessment of the quality of supervision, the level of basic knowledge of forest owners regarding the legal aspects of forest management and the analysis of the relationship between the results of the assessment of the quality of supervision and the level of knowledge of the surveyed forest owners presented in a regional layout. The work was based on the results of a computer−assisted survey conducted in April 2019 by the Kantar Polska S.A. agency on a random, representative nationwide sample of 1003 forest owners. The largest group of forest owners rated the quality of supervision as good (rate 4) and very good (rate 5). The age, sex and education of the respondent did not affect the assessment of the quality of supervision, but it differed regionally. The results of research on the level of basic knowledge of forest owners indicate that it is not at the satisfactory level and it is also strongly diversified regionally, which can be partly explained by the historically shaped, diversified share of private forests. Considering the growing area of private forests, their natural and economic importance, measures should be taken to improve both the quality of supervision and the level of forestry knowledge of forest owners., Sylwan 165 (2): 91-100

Mistletoe (Viscum album L.) is a semi−parasitic plant and in moderate abundance it does not pose a lethal threat to a tree. However, recent droughts have made heavy impact on forests and mistletoe in recent years began to appear on a larger scale in places where it has never been a threat before. The main purpose of this research was to carry out a large−scale inventory of the mistletoe in the Kozienice Forest District (central Poland) for assessing the number of mistletoe on individual trees and in the stands as well as to test new inventory method adapted to Polish conditions. It is based on random sample plots, each consisting of 15 trees, on which impact of mistletoe is assessed. On every sample plot the mistletoe occurrence, location in the crown, estimate of the percentage within the crown and the number of mistletoe on a tree is assessed. In addition, for further analysis, information on stand (forest habitat type, site index) as well as measured trees (age, diameter, Kraft class, crown length, loss of assimilation apparatus, crown type) levels is recorded. For the current analyses we used 100 sample plots, on which 1500 trees were assessed. Results show that 31% of trees are infected by mistletoe. More than 35% of the infected trees were damaged heavily by more than 6 specimen per single tree., Sylwan 165 (1): 3-8

Many attempts have been made to develop a strategy for regulating forest use consistent with the multifunctional forest model. In this paper we present two proprietary methodologies of regulation of the allowable cutting size in a multifunctional forest in the 60−year time perspective. We assumed that all restrictions of nature protection and non−productive functions of the forest would still be in force. We based the first method on age class tables (TKW), which is faster but less exact in terms of spatial order of felling. The tree stand method (D−STAN) is based on stands spatial order and the cutting direction basis. In both cases, we based the temporal felling order on species rotation age. Comparing the results, we noticed that they present similar trends in the age structure of tree stands in younger age classes. The main discrepancies of the forecast concerns the share of forest stands in a complex structure: the TKW method gave approximately 12,4%, while the D−STAN one produced 5,1%. The latter approach shows that much smaller areas of stands are used for reconstruction. That marker is influenced by the spatial order of cutting used in the D−STAN model. In conclusion, we suggest to return to the big−area clear−cutting system on fresh coniferous habitats. Medium−area clear−cuttings should be brought back on the least fertile fresh mixed coniferous forests and possibly even fresh mixed deciduous forests., Sylwan 164 (4): 280-291

The aim of the study was to compare the content of some chemical substances in a bark of about 3−year−old fast−growing poplars Populus deltoides × maximowiczii and Populus trichocarpa with literature data on the chemical composition of a bark of older deciduous trees. The Populus deltoides × maximowiczii and Populus trichocarpa material were obtained from the Wolica experimental field belonging to the Institute of Biology, Department of Genetics, Plant Breeding and Biotechnology at Warsaw University of Life Sciences. Using the standard laboratory procedures, the chemical composition of the bark was examined, i.e. the content of extractives and mineral substances, cellulose, lignin and the content of soluble substances in 1% NaOH. The cellulose content in the bark of the 3−year−old poplars tested was higher by from 10 to 23% in relation to its content in the bark of older trees. Whereas, the content of lignin in the bark of the 3−year−old poplars was lower by from 10 to 20% compared to its content in the bark of other older trees. It was found that based on the data obtained, it is difficult to clearly determine which of the generally accepted factors affect the content of mineral substances and substances soluble in 1% NaOH in the bark. However, the content of extractives soluble in a mixture of ethanol and benzene (1:1) w/w, chloroform and ethanol (93:7) w/w as well as cellulose and lignin in the bark depends on the species, age, habitat conditions of the trees and the height of the trunk from which the samples were collected., Sylwan 164 (9): 767-774

Mistletoe (Viscum album L.) is a semi−parasitic plant and, as long as it is not present in large quantities, it does not pose a lethal threat to trees. Due to its ability to carry out photosynthesis, its effect on the host is negligible. However, recent droughts have made heavy impact on forests and mistletoe in recent years began to appear on a larger scale in regions and in places where it has never been a threat before. For this reason, there is an urgent need to broaden our knowledge about this species. This work includes a review of the literature on the biology and ecology of mistletoe. The main purpose of this research is to analyze the methods for assessing the number of mistletoe on individual trees and in the stands as well as to prepare new method adapted to Polish conditions. New method that was proposed is based on random sample plots, each consisting of 15 trees on which impact of mistletoe is assessed. On every sample plot the mistletoe occurrence, location in the crown, estimate of the percentage within the crown and the number of mistletoe on a tree is assessed. In addition, for further analysis, information on stand (forest habitat type, site index) as well as measured trees (age, diameter, Kraft class, crown length, loss of assimilation apparatus, crown type) levels is recorded., Sylwan 164 (7): 568-575

Nowadays in forestry, we observe an increase in threats that rise the uncertainty and risk of the forest management. This is caused, inter alia, by increasing intensity of forest and environmental damage as well as by the conflict of expectations for the use of forest resources. As a result, there is a problem of achieving the goals of sustainable development and adaptation of the forest ecosystems to new challenges. The aim of the presented study was to assess the regional variety of the need and the urgency of stands conversion. The feature was determined for all stands of the State Forests older than 20 years. Three assessment criteria were selected: (A) silvicultural target (compatibility of the species composition with the planned one), (B) stands stability (resultant from 5 auxiliary sub−indices), and (C) stock level (including 2 auxiliary sub−indices). The majority of stands has consistent species composition (over 60% in total), however only a small fraction of stands was found with a species composition incompatible with the planned one (average 6.34%). Stands with medium stability accounted for about 70%, while those with poor growing stock status make up about 70% of stands under analysis. The regional diversification of the needs for stands reconstruction seems to be strongly correlated with the incompatibility of stand’s species composition with habitat conditions. The largest fraction of stands requiring conversion was observed in Wrocław, Kraków and Katowice regional directorates of the State Forests. This situation may change in the future due to dynamic changes resulting from modifications of the climate and the deterioration of health condition of dominant Scots pine stands in central and north parts of Poland. Private forests were not taken into consideration in this research. It may impact the overall picture in regions of the high share of private forest ownership., Sylwan 163 (4): 267-278

In this paper, we present problems with the management of the forests acquired by the State Forests from the State Land Fund. This was particularly an issue in forest districts with a significant share of private forests, e.g. eastern part of Poland. The problem becomes more and more valid because of the latest amendment of the Forest Act in 2016. It gives the State Forests the right of the first purchase of private forests attributed to sale. They may receive forest stands that will generate specific economic problems related to care, conservation, felling maintenance, etc. These are mostly stands with typical features of private forests, resulting from abandoning economic operations, selective acquisition, as well as from the size, shape and neighbourhood of the plots. This study presents the characteristics of almost 2,000 tree stands acquired from the State Land Fund between 1992−2016 by the Siedlce Forest District (SFD), which is a part of the Regional Directorate of the State Forests in Warsaw. SFD has low forest cover (18%), a strong fragmentation of forest complexes and a very large share of private forests (over 75%). The analysis was based primarily on the descriptions of forest stands and the quantitative and qualitative characteristics, presenting at the same time the problems that SFD has with conducting rational forest management in acquired plots. The current status of the forests transferred from the State Land Fund was assessed as unsatisfactory. The main problems in local conditions are: (i) inadequate fixation in acquired parcels next to private forests (difficulty in locating treatments and custody over the State property), (ii) depleted tree stands, (iii) inadequate parcels (too narrow) and (iv) complications related to co−ownership of parts seized plots. The need to carry out joint−assembly works (mainly land consolidation) or to introduce land communities that would facilitate the management of these forests was demonstrated., Sylwan 163 (8): 665-674

Virucidal activity of (A) single compounds or (B) their mixtures. The stock virus was placed into contact with MTC of the single compounds or the highest concentrations of the compound mixtures under different experimental conditions (contact times 10 or 60 min; contact temperatures 4, 20 or 37 °C). Each mixture was then titrated, and CCID50 titres of treated virus were compared with control virus titres (tested under the same set of conditions). Nisin (N) concentrations in μg/mL, lysozyme (Lys) and lactoferrin (LF) concentrations in mg/mL. All data expressed as means ± SD (standard deviation) for n = 3 independent experiments. (DOCX 30 kb)

Cytotoxicity of nisin+lactoferrin, lysozyme+lactoferrin and nisin+lysozyme mixtures after 5 days of incubation (MTT assay). Cell viability expressed as the percentage of control (untreated) cell viability. Nisin (N) concentrations in μg/mL, lysozyme (Lys) and lactoferrin (LF) concentrations in mg/mL. All data expressed as means ± SD (standard deviation) for n = 3 independent experiments. (DOCX 120 kb)

Jednym z podstawowych pojęć we współczesnych naukach teoretycznych i stosowanych oraz w praktyce jest „informacja”. Pomimo że pojęcie to jest używane właściwie we wszystkich dziedzinach naszego życia, to jednak wciąż nie mamy powszechnie akceptowanej definicji informacji. W pierwotnym sensie termin ten oznaczał wiadomość w ogóle. Najbardziej znaną i powszechną definicją informacji jest powiedzenie, że informacja nie jest ani materią, ani energią. Zgromadzona i przechowywana informacja jest często nazywana wiedzą, tak więc wiedza to zakumulowana informacja, zaś sama informacja to przyrost wiedzy. Tam gdzie nie ma przyrostu wiedzy, nie ma informacji. Nie każda jednak wiedza jest informacją, staje się nią dopiero wtedy, gdy informacja zmniejsza niedookreśloność, niewiedzę. Według wielu specjalistów wartość informacji można mierzyć przyrostem prawdopodobieństwa osiągnięcia celu przed i po otrzymaniu informacji. System informacyjny realizuje przynajmniej jedną z czterech funkcji obejmujących: gromadzenie, przechowywanie, przetwarzanie i przekazywanie informacji. Przesyłanie informacji odbywa się między nadawcą, który wysyła informację, a odbiorcą, który tę informację odbiera. Przekazywana treść informacji jest nazywana komunikatem. Informacja, podobnie jak materia i energia, ma swój ilościowy i jakościowy wymiar. Jako miarę ilości informacji przyjmuje się niepewność (entropię), która zostaje usunięta dzięki otrzymaniu informacji. Dyskusja o naturze informacji trwa nadal i zapewne będzie kontynuowana w całym świecie cywilizowanym. Dotyczy ona przede wszystkim rosnącego znaczenia i pozycji informacji, która już obecnie wchodzi w rolę podstawowego zasobu, jakim jest kapitał. Nowe podejście do rozwoju gospodarczego uznaje, że to właśnie umiejętności, kompetencje, zdolności, a także przekazywanie informacji czyli także edukacja, stanowią o utrzymującej się przewadze przedsiębiorstw hołdujących tej wiedzy. Dysponowanie wiedzą na temat lasu i gospodarki leśnej zobowiązuje leśników – naukowców i praktyków, nie tylko do jej pogłębiania, ale także do edukowania społeczeństwa i komunikowania się z nim, a także wewnątrz swojego środowiska, na różnych płaszczyznach. W dniach 13–15 marca 2018 r. w Instytucie Badawczym Leśnictwa odbyła się kolejna, już X Sesja Zimowej Szkoły Leśnej, której tematem były „Współczesne problemykomunikacji społecznej i edukacji w leśnictwie”. Współorganizatorem Sesji byłakomunikacji społecznej i edukacji w leśnictwie”. Współorganizatorem Sesji była Dyrekcja Generalna Lasów Państwowych. Merytoryczne aspekty X Sesji zostały przygotowane i opracowane przez Radę Programową Zimowej Szkoły Leśnej w składzie: dr hab. Janusz Czerepko, prof. dr hab. Andrzej Grzywacz, prof. dr hab. Jacek Hilszczański, dr inż. Krzysztof Janeczko, mgr inż. Jan Karwowski, prof. dr hab. Andrzej Klocek (przewodniczący), dr Jacek Krawczyk, mgr inż. Wiesław Krzewina, mgr inż. Marek Roman, prof. dr hab. Tomasz Zawiła-Niedźwiecki. Rada Programowa określiła nie tylko zakres problematyki X Sesji, ale także propozycje tematyczne referatów zamawianych oraz ich autorów. W trakcie X Sesji referaty wygłosili również zaproszeni goście zagraniczni, reprezentujący Europejski Instytut Leśny, Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Pradze, Wyższą Szkołę Leśną w Rottenburgu, Narodowe Centrum Leśne w Zwoleniu, Uniwersytet we Fryburgu, Europejskie Stowarzyszenie Lasów Państwowych – EUSTAFOR, koncern Coillte z Irlandii. W Sesji wzięło udział 260 uczestników reprezentujących: kierownictwo Lasów Państwowych oraz jednostki organizacyjne PGLLP, Ministerstwo Środowiska, Polską Akademię Nauk, Radę Główną Instytutów Badawczych, parki narodowe, Narodowy Fundusz Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej, Polskie Towarzystwo Leśne, Polski Związek Zrzeszeń Leśnych, Stowarzyszenie Inżynierów i Techników Leśnictwa i Drzewnictwa, Polski Związek Łowiecki. Najliczniejszą grupę słuchaczy Szkoły stanowili edukatorzy leśni zatrudnieni w nadleśnictwach, leśnych kompleksach promocyjnych i izbach edukacji leśnej. Liczne grono stanowili również przedstawiciele ośrodków naukowych oraz studentów polskich uczelni leśnych. Wszystkim uczestnikom Sesji Zimowej Szkoły Leśnej serdecznie dziękujemy.

The paper presents the assessment of possible impact of climate change on forest ecosystems in Poland and its consequences in the forest management planning. Scenarios of climate change in the twenty first century do not allow unambiguous determination of the rate and direction of these changes. However, it is believed that climate change could have negative economic consequences, which directly or indirectly will affect the deterioration of the environment. Analysis of the possible forms of the impact of climate change on forest ecosystems is particularly relevant in terms of growth conditions. The most noticeable consequences of the changes will concern the threat to the stability of forest stands resulting from the increase in the intensity of trees dieback caused by different factors. The phenomenon results, among others, from: the occurrence of new threats from biotic factors, including caused by secondary pests and the occurrence of alien species of flora and fauna, the severity of the impact of abiotic factors and the deterioration of health (especially of conifers). The increase in the intensity of the evolution of trees is directly related to the size of the cuts contingent and will lead to a blurring of the boundary between thinning and health−cutting. It is expected that the planned size of the cuts will be implemented mainly in the thinning and accidental cuts. This requires the modification of the perception of the relationship of each category cuts. We propose the order and urgency in the planning of forest use. May be supposed that the role of the clearcutting system will be limited, with the exception of some forest complexes of predominantly productive functions, dominated by poor coniferous habitats. It is recommended to use the natural regeneration in the forest management. Lack of clear boundary between thinning and final cutting will require flexibility in the accounting for the total size of cuts. The consequences of climate change will probably occur in the long term perspective. It can therefore be assumed that reasonably forest management can help to reduce their negative effects. This requires pre−emptive decisions in forest management planning and verification for silviculture, production and protection targets, and their consistent implementation., Sylwan 161 (7): 531-538

Focus of the study was on the economic importance of intermediate harvest regulation. Analysis of the research material concerned mainly the ratio of the intermediate harvest to the expected 50% ten−year current volume increment. Study was realised in Scots pine stands in 337 forest districts all over Poland., Sylwan 156 (11): 848-854

Study analyses the regional differences in the level of intermediate harvest in Scots pine stands based on the data obtained from 337 forest districts. Analysis focuses on the impact of natural conditions and regional practices on the intensity of improvement cutting., Sylwan 156 (10): 732-740

The article depicts the legal aspects of determining intermediate cut in the State Forests. Analysed methods show a gradual departure from the stand−level management planning to that based on unit larger than a stand in the subsequent versions of the amended forest management planning instruction., Sylwan 155 (2): 75-83

The research revealed an increase in accuracy of stand volume determination at induvidual stand and groups of stands level. Errors appeared in determination of such features as stand quality class, average diameter breast high of stand, average height and stocking index., Sylwan 154 (8): 535-544