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The present research aims at expanding the literature on biologization (i.e., a form of dehumanization in which others are perceived as contagious entities) by providing the first empirical evidence of the link between this sociopsychological process and indirect aggression (i.e., behaviours intended to harm someone in a roundabout manner, such as excluding them from a group or society). We first identified the most dehumanized social groups in Italy. Then, by using cluster analysis, we demonstrated that biologized social groups (i.e., drug addicts, homeless people, prostitutes, and sick people) tend especially to be victims of indirect rather than direct aggression tendencies (i.e., intentions against individuals or groups to cause damage through face-to-face confrontation). Furthermore, we found that social groups associated with disease-related metaphors are more likely to be victims of indirect aggression than social groups perceived as animal-like (i.e., immigrants, prisoners, and Roma). These findings enrich our understanding of biological dehumanization and enhance the so far scarce literature on the topic.

Over the last few years, the use of social media has been increasing exponentially. At the same time, several studies have reported an intensification of materialistic tendencies, especially among the youth, those who use social media the most. Although several studies have already investigated the consequences of their use, more is needed to know about the association between social media and materialism. Instagram is one of the most widely used social media in the world, not only to share personal content but also to advertise products and services, enabling users themselves to earn money through the publication of commercial content. Through a correlational study (N = 480), we verified the link between the use of Instagram and materialism. Additionally, we proposed the existence of a connection between Instagram, materialism, the objectification of others, and system justification beliefs. Furthermore, the analysis of the direct and indirect effects showed that the link between the use of Instagram and both the objectification of others and system justification beliefs is mediated by materialism. Moreover, using Instagram to achieve economic benefits can play a fundamental role. Finally, the implications of these results are discussed. Given the negative impact of materialism, objectification of others, and system justification in perpetuating socioeconomic inequalities, this study provides significant new insights into examining the relationship between these factors and social media usage.

The main goal of the present research is to develop and validate the Perceived Economic Inequality Scale (PEIS), an instrument measuring individuals' perceptions of economic inequality at the national level. The study was conducted on a representative sample of the Italian population (N = 1,446, 51% women). The factorial structure of the scale was assessed through cross-validated exploratory-confirmatory factor analyses. To inspect the PEIS psychometric properties, item and correlation analyses were performed. The results showed that the PEIS is a valid and reliable unidimensional measure of perceived economic inequality at the national level. Further support of the PEIS construct validity was provided by the correlation of the scale score with the perceived wage gap and ideological beliefs like the economic system justification, social dominance orientation, meritocratic beliefs, and participants' political orientation. Crucially, multigroup confirmatory factor analysis supported configural, metric, and scalar invariances of the scale across socio-demographic groups. The PEIS allows researchers to assess the subjective component of economic inequality by also serving as a useful tool for unpacking the psychological correlates of perceived inequality.

Much research found that economic inequality—the dispersion of incomes distribution among individuals in a society—affects subjective well-being (SWB). As a meta-analysis has shown, the association between economic inequality, commonly measured by the Gini index, and individuals' SWB is weak and not significant. Psychosocial research suggests that the situational perception, rather than objective reality, has a greater impact on individuals. Our aim was to investigate whether and how objective and subjective measures of economic inequality affect the subjective individuals' well-being, both in its affective and cognitive components. A representative Italian sample (N = 1446, 51% women; average age = 42.42 years, SD = 12.87) answered an online survey. Multilevel regressions detected a negative and significant effect of the inequality perception on well-being. In contrast, the Gini index showed no effect. Two psychological mechanisms explain the association between perceived inequality and well-being: Perceived anger toward inequality and individuals' economic vulnerability. The parallel mediation models showed that the effect of perceived inequality is conveyed by cognitive (economic vulnerability) and emotional (anger) processing of inequality. Findings also highlighted the role of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

The objective of the present study was to examine gender stereotypes and sexualization in Italian television advertisements aimed at children. For this purpose, content analysis method was used to analyze 185 commercials broadcast from 6 pm to 8:30 pm over the three Italian television channels dedicated to children which attract the largest audience share. In order to allow comparison with previous research on gender stereotyping, two raters coded a series of variables common to similar investigations (i.e., verbs used in the ads, voice-over, voice-over message, setting, pace of the ads, activities performed by the main characters). Results indicate that gender stereotypes are still prevalent in Italian children's television commercials. Furthermore, although the level of sexualization of children is low, we found that girls tend to be more sexualized than boys, especially in terms of "adultification." Our findings provide an updated picture of children's advertising in Italy by also expanding the literature on gender role stereotyping and sexualization in television commercials.

Economic inequality qualifies as a structural characteristic leading to political action, albeit this relationship manifests differently across socioeconomic classes. COVID-19 pandemic has amplified existing economic inequalities in ways that increased social tensions and political unrest around the world. This research investigates the effect of COVID-19 personal impacts on the relationship between perceived economic inequality and individuals' political participation. An online survey was administered to an Italian representative sample of 1,446 people (51% women, mean age of 42.42 years, SD = 12.87). The questionnaire assessed the perceived economic inequality, the personal impacts of COVID-19 (i.e., on finance, mental health, and ability to procure resources), and individuals' involvement in political participation. Moderation analyses were conducted separately for different socioeconomic classes (i.e., lower, middle, and upper classes). Results showed that individuals who perceive greater economic inequality, while controlling for perceived wage gap, are more likely to take action, but only if they belong to the higher class. For lower-class individuals, perceiving greater inequality erodes political action. Interaction effects occurred mainly in the middle class and with COVID-19 impacts on resources procurement, which inhibits political action.

Exposure to violent video games can cause a wide array of harmful consequences to adolescents. This study shows preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of a brief intervention to decrease aggression and increase self-control following exposure to a violent video game. Participants (157 high-school students; age range: 13–19) were randomly assigned to play a violent or nonviolent video game for 25 min. Next, they were exposed to an intervention (i.e., a brief article) designed to induce weak versus strong beliefs in self-control capabilities. We also included a neutral article unrelated to self-control. After reading the article, aggression and self-control-related variables (i.e., impulses inhibition, cognitive performance) were measured. Aggression was operationalized using the intensity and duration of aversive noise participants gave an accomplice on the Competitive Reaction Time Task, impulse inhibition was operationalized using the ability to resist eating candies, and cognitive performance was operationalized using the “spot the differences” task. Our results found that adolescents who played a violent video game were more aggressive and reported lower levels of impulse inhibition (i.e., ate more candies). However, inducing beliefs in self-control capabilities by reading a brief article stating that the human’s brain is a powerful tool for exercising self-control eliminated these harmful effects. The interaction was nonsignificant for cognitive performance. Overall, our study offers initial evidence that a brief intervention might help limit the harmful consequences of exposure to violent video games on adolescents.

In the present work, we analysed a broader impact of self-objectification at the workplace, that is the workers’ undermined intentions to protest against the existing social inequalities. In doing so, we conducted a cross-sectional study involving factory workers (N = 156). A serial mediation model showed that their self-objectification, in terms of decreased self-attribution of humanness and increased self-perception as instrument-like, was linked to diminished beliefs in personal free will which, in turn, was associated with increased system justification and decreased activist tendencies. Theoretical contributions for self-objectification literature and practical implications in the maintenance of the existing social inequalities are discussed.

Objectification refers to the perception and treatment of human beings as mere objects. Although this dehumanizing process has deeply permeated the domain of work throughout history, social psychology researchers have only recently begun to empirically investigate it. Here, we review the recent literature that analysed working objectification by considering its two main facets: objectification (when workers are objectified by others) and self-objectification (when workers objectify themselves). First, we theoretically define the construct of working objectification, disentangling it from related constructs and reviewing the research on motivational and cognitive processes underpinning workers’ objectification. Then, we focus on the workers’ perspective and systematise the research on the consequences of the metaperception of being objectified. Finally, we focus on a series of experimental and field studies that analyse the antecedents and consequences of workers’ self-objectification. We conclude by discussing future directions and highlighting the theoretical and practical contributions of this line of research.

Despite the relevance of social exclusion and economic inequality for homelessness, empirical studies investigating how these issues relate to homeless people's psychological well-being are scarce. We aimed to fill this gap by conducting two quasi-experimental studies on homeless and non-homeless groups. The first study (N = 200) showed that homeless (vs. non-homeless) people presented higher levels of resignation, characterized by depression, alienation, helplessness, and unworthiness (Williams, 2009). The second study (N = 183) replicated the findings from Study 1 and showed that perceived economic inequality could increase homeless people's resignation by emphasizing perceptions of social exclusion. Additional analyses found that identification with the stigmatized homeless group could mediate the relationship between perceived inequality and social exclusion, increasing the resignation. Overall, the results showed that chronic social exclusion of homeless people is associated with higher levels of resignation. Moreover, they showed the role of perceived economic inequality and homeless group stigmatized identification as group-specific mechanisms favouring social exclusion and ultimately worsening psychological well-being.

Economic inequality qualifies as a structural characteristic leading to political action, albeit this relationship manifests differently across socioeconomic classes. COVID-19 pandemic has amplified existing economic inequalities in ways that increased social tensions and political unrest around the world. This research investigates the effect of COVID-19 personal impacts on the relationship between perceived economic inequality and individuals’ political participation. An online survey was administered to an Italian representative sample of 1,446 people (51% women, mean age of 42.42 years, SD = 12.87). The questionnaire assessed the perceived economic inequality, the personal impacts of COVID-19 (i.e., on finance, mental health, and ability to procure resources), and individuals’ involvement in political participation. Moderation analyses were conducted separately for different socioeconomic classes (i.e., lower, middle, and upper classes). Results showed that individuals who perceive greater economic inequality, while controlling for perceived wage gap, are more likely to take action, but only if they belong to the higher class. For lower-class individuals, perceiving greater inequality erodes political action. Interaction effects occurred mainly in the middle class and with COVID-19 impacts on resources procurement, which inhibits political action.

Much research found that economic inequality—the dispersion of incomes distribution among individuals in a society—affects subjective well‐being (SWB). As a meta‐analysis has shown, the association between economic inequality, commonly measured by the Gini index, and individuals' SWB is weak and not significant. Psychosocial research suggests that the situational perception, rather than objective reality, has a greater impact on individuals. Our aim was to investigate whether and how objective and subjective measures of economic inequality affect the subjective individuals' well‐being, both in its affective and cognitive components. A representative Italian sample (N = 1446, 51% women; average age = 42.42 years, SD = 12.87) answered an online survey. Multilevel regressions detected a negative and significant effect of the inequality perception on well‐being. In contrast, the Gini index showed no effect. Two psychological mechanisms explain the association between perceived inequality and well‐being: Perceived anger toward inequality and individuals' economic vulnerability. The parallel mediation models showed that the effect of perceived inequality is conveyed by cognitive (economic vulnerability) and emotional (anger) processing of inequality. Findings also highlighted the role of the ongoing COVID‐19 pandemic.

This study explores the psychological effects of the COVID-19 emergency on workers employed in the supermarket sector by analysing their levels of burnout and the relationship between the burnout syndrome and employees' workplace experiences. A sample of 422 Italian workers answered a survey addressing the burnout dimensions (i.e., exhaustion, cynicism, and professional inefficacy) along with perceived organizational factors and dehumanizing representations. Results showed that 32% of the respondents had symptoms of severe burnout, and 41% had symptoms of exhaustion and cynicism. More specifically, through cluster analysis, four burnout profiles were identified: “burnout” (high on all three dimensions), “engagement” (low on all three dimensions), “overextended” (high on exhaustion), and “disengaged” (moderate on exhaustion and cynicism). Each cluster showed a different pattern of correlates with the organizational and dehumanizing perceptions. Our findings contribute to the knowledge gaps of burnout and workplace experiences by providing insights into the ongoing health emergency among supermarket clerks. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement.

Economic inequality qualifies as a structural characteristic leading to political action, albeit this relationship manifests differently across socioeconomic classes. COVID-19 pandemic has amplified existing economic inequalities in ways that increased social tensions and political unrest around the world. "is research investigates the effect of COVID-19 personal impacts on the relationship between perceived economic inequality and individuals’ political actions. An online survey was administered to a representative sample of 1446 Italians of which 51% were women with a mean age of 42.42 years (SD = 12.87). "e questionnaire assessed the perceived economic inequality, the personal impacts of COVID-19 (i.e., on finance, mental health, and ability to procure resources), and individuals’ involvement in political actions. Moderation analyses were conducted separately for different socioeconomic classes. Results showed that individuals who perceive greater economic inequality are more likely to take action, but only if they belong to the higher class. For lower-class individuals, perceiving greater inequality erodes political action. Interaction effects occurred mainly in the middle class and with COVID-19 impacts on resources procurement, which inhibits political action.

The goal of this research was to document the frequency of street harassment and examine the associations among street harassment experiences, negative psychological outcomes, and changes in behavioural habits. A sample of students and workers at an Italian university was surveyed (N = 2, 764). Findings indicated that exposure to street harassment had negative psychological effects regardless of whether people labelled their experiences as harassment or not. Furthermore, analyses demonstrated that negative outcomes deriving from street harassment mediated the relationship between harassing behaviours experienced by respondents and the probability that they changed their daily routine. Crucially, all the tested models remained significant by controlling for participants' gender, age, and role. Research and practical implications were discussed.

Through two studies (N = 602) conducted in Italy between February and March 2020, we examined the impact of the COVID-19 emergency on biologization—a form of dehumanization that involves the perception of others as contagious entities—and outgroup prejudice. Overall, results showed that higher emergency perception was associated with greater biologization toward the groups most affected by the virus, namely the Chinese outgroup and the Italian ingroup. In turn, biologization toward the outgroup increased prejudice against that group. We also found that when the pandemic hit Italy, the greater emergency perception was associated with increased emotional closeness with Chinese people, resulting in reduced biologization and prejudice toward them. However, these results held true only for Italian respondents who reported higher levels of ingroup biologization. Taken together, our findings contribute to the knowledge gaps of biologization and prejudice by also providing relevant insights into the ongoing health emergency.

Through three studies (N = 306), we analysed the association between physical disgust and implicit biologization – the perception of others as disease organisms. In doing so, we employed an adapted version of the Semantic Misattribution Procedure (SMP). Study 1 found that the higher was the level of physical (vs. moral) disgust that White participants felt towards Black people, the higher was their implicit tendency to biologize this ethnic group. Study 2 and Study 3 experimentally replicated the association between physical disgust and biologization by manipulating physical disgust through vignettes that portrayed a target behaving in a physically (vs. morally vs. non-disgusting) way. Results showed that participants assigned to the physical disgust condition biologized more the target – both implicitly and explicitly – than participants in the moral disgust and non-disgusting condition. Overall, these findings shed light on the biological dehumanization of others and its emotional roots, by thus paving the way for its prevention.

The paper presents an open usable tool, the ACME shop paradigm, for experimentally studying self-objectification due to objectifying work activities. The paradigm consists of a simulation in which participants are asked to perform an objectifying (repetitive, fragmented, and other directed) vs a non-objectifying work activity. Two studies tested the construct (convergent and discriminant) validity of the paradigm by showing its effectiveness in inducing different facets of working self-objectification–but not other forms of dehumanization–in laboratory and online settings. In the objectifying condition, participants self-objectified more, that is they self-attributed less human mental state and self-perceived as more instrument-like than participants in the non-objectifying and control (an activity characterized by objectifying features but not related to the work domain) conditions. Moreover, the convergent and discriminant validity of the paradigm in inducing self-objectification, and no other type of dehumanization, was demonstrated by the significant impact of objectifying condition on self-attribution of both agency and experience and not on self-perception as animal-like. Applications of the paradigm will be discussed.

Sexualization in mass media is a widespread phenomenon. Although sexualization and sexual objectification are often used as synonymous, they are two different concepts. Across two studies, we investigated how sexualization affects perceptions of women (Study 1) and men (Study 2) as sexual objects. Participants were asked to judge sexual objectification, competence, and sexiness of female and male models portrayed with different degrees of sexualization, namely, as Non-Revealing(dressed), merely Revealing (undressed), and SexualizedRevealing (undressed and provocative). The results of both studies showed that as the level of sexualization increased so did participants’ perceptions of the targets as sexual objects. However, the level of sexualization affected perceived competence and sexiness differently depending on the target’s g ender. Male models’ competence decreased as the level of sexualization increased, whereas female models portrayed as merely Revealingand as Sexualized Revealing were judged as equally incompetent. Male targets’ sexiness was not affected by the level of portrayals’ sexualization, whereas Sexualized Revealing portrayal s enhanced the perceived sexiness of female targets. Finally, in Study 2, the results showed that male targets in Sexualize d Revealing portrayals were judged as less masculine. Our findings suggest that sexualization contributes similarly to the perception of both women and men as sexual objects but affects other variables depending on the target’s gender. Our work extends previous literature and informs us about the consequences that sexualization of men and women have on others’ judgments

Objectification occurs when a person is perceived and/or treated like an object. With the present work, we overview the available measures of objectification and present a series of studies aimed at investigating the validity of the task of inverted body recognition proposed by Bernard and colleagues (2012), which might potentially be a useful cognitive measure of objectification. We conducted three studies. Study 1 (N = 101) is a direct replication of Bernard et al.’s study: participants were presented with the same photos of sexualized male and female targets used in the original research. Study 2a (N = 100) is a conceptual replication: we used different images of scantily dressed male and female models. Finally, in Study 2b (N = 100), we investigated a boundary condition by presenting to participants photos of the same models as in Study 2a, but fully dressed and non-sexualized. Using mixed-effects models for completely-crossed classified data structures, we investigated the relationship between the inversion effect and the stimulus’ asymmetry, sexualization and attractiveness, and the perceivers’ self-objectification, sexism, and automatic woman-human association. Study 1 replicated the original results, showing a stronger inversion effect for male photos. However, no difference between male and female stimuli emerged in either Study 2a or 2b. Moreover, the impact of the other variables on the inversion effect was highly unstable across the studies. These aspects together indicate that the inversion effect depends on the specific set of stimuli and limits the generalizability of results collected using this method.