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Gloeocantharellus andasibensis sp. nov. is recognized by orange-red basidiomata with a convex to plane, innately fibrillose and viscid pileus, ellipsoid to amygdaliform, small, verrucose basidiospores, and a distinct nrITS sequence. This is the first record of the genus from Madagascar. To improve the understanding of the nomenclature of the genus, the type specimen of G. okapaensis and specimens of G. lateritius and G. corneri accessioned in the fungarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew were also sequenced.

With over 25,000 species, orchids are among families with remarkable high rate of diversification. Since Darwin's time, major advances attributed the exceptional diversity of orchids to plant–pollinator interactions. However, unraveling the processes and factors that determine the phenotypic and genotypic variation of natural orchid populations remains a challenge. Here, we assessed genetic population structure and floral differentiation in recently diverged leafless Vanilla species in a world biodiversity hotspot, Madagascar, using seven microsatellite loci and 26 morphometric variables. Additionally, analyses were performed to test for the occurrence of any patterns of isolation by distance, isolation by environment, and isolation by adaptation and to detect possible physical barriers that might have caused genetic discontinuities between populations. Positive inbreeding coefficients detected in 22 populations were probably due to the presence of null alleles, geitonogamy and/or some admixture (sympatric species). In contrast, the only high‐altitude population showed an important rate of clonality leading to heterozygote excess. Genetic diversity was maximum in western populations, suggesting a postglacial colonization to the north and south. Clustering analyses identified seven genetic groups characterized by specific floral traits that matched five botanical descriptions in the literature. A contribution of montane refugia and river barriers on population differentiation was detected. We also detected combined effects of IBD/IBE and IBE/IBA on genetic differentiation and suggested this pattern is more likely determined by ecological isolation, although pollinator‐mediated divergent selection could not be ruled out for some of the species. Overall, this study provides further insights on speciation in orchids, a group for which Madagascar shows one of the world's highest level of endemism and confirms the importance of the peculiar biogeography of the island in shaping species differentiation., The aim of our study was to resolve evolutionary processes in a group of recently diverged Vanilla species in Madagascar, using a population genetics approach, with a combination of molecular data (microsatellites), floral morphological data, ecological data, and geographic distances. Clustering analyses identified seven genetic groups characterized by specific floral traits that matched five botanical descriptions in the literature. A contribution of montane refugia and river barriers on population differentiation was detected. We also detected combined effects of IBD/IBE and IBE/IBA on genetic differentiation and suggested this pattern is more likely determined by ecological isolation, although pollinator‐mediated divergent selection could not be ruled out for some of the species.

The genus Hygroaster (Hygrophoraceae, Hygrophorineae) is a small genus with a tropical distribution. Based on morphological and phylogenetic analysis, two new species, H. madagascarensis and H. andasibensis, are described from Madagascar. They are the first species of this genus described from Africa. To stabilize the nomenclature, the type specimens of H. nodulisporus, the type species of the genus, and H. fucatus were studied. The initial combination of the name Hygrophorus nodulisporus in the genus Hygroaster was invalid and is thus validated here. In addition, our study revealed that H. fucatus belongs to the genus Asproinocybe in suborder Tricholomatineae, whose representatives also have nodulose basidiospores. A new combination A. fucata is proposed.

Madagascar’s emblematic traveller’s tree is a monospecific genus within Strelitziaceae, the family of the South African bird of paradise. Until now, this endemic genus consisted of a single species: Ravenala madagascariensis Sonn., which is grown everywhere in the tropics as an ornamental plant. The plant is immediately recognizable for its huge fan-forming banana-like leaves and is locally referred to in Magagascar by several vernacular names. “Variants” have been mentioned in the literature, but without any attempt to recognize formal taxa based on diagnostic features. In this paper, we formally describe five new species and fix the application of the name R. madagascariensis to the populations growing on the eastern coast of Madagascar, with the epitype growing in the marshy Fort-Dauphin area in the south. This paper has numerous implications for conservation biology and other domains of life sciences, due to the importance of this genus for the conservation of Madagascan ecosystems, the ornamental plant trade, as well as for its invasive status in several tropical areas.

Various plant species establish intimate symbioses with bacteria within their aerial organs. The bacteria are contained within nodules or glands often present in distinctive patterns on the leaves in what is commonly referred to as leaf nodule symbiosis. We describe here a highly specific symbiosis between a wild yam species from Madagascar, Dioscorea sansibarensis and bacteria of the species Orrella dioscoreae. Using whole-genome sequencing of plastids and bacteria from wild-collected samples, we show phylogenetic patterns consistent with a dominant vertical mode of transmission of the symbionts. Unique so far among leaf nodule symbioses, the bacteria can be cultured and are amenable to comparative transcriptomics, revealing a potential role in complementing the host’s arsenal of secondary metabolites. We propose a recent establishment of a vertical mode of transmission in this symbiosis which, together with a large effective population size explains the cultivability and apparent lack of genome reductive evolution in O. dioscoreae. We leverage these unique features to reveal pathways and functions under positive selection in these specialized endophytes, highlighting the candidate mechanisms enabling a permanent association in the phyllosphere.

Wild yam species ( Dioscorea spp.) provide important supplementary food and thus contribute directly to the livelihood and well-being of local people in SW Madagascar. Given the ongoing exploitation of this resource, there is a necessity to identify and predict yam species distribution along environmental gradients to improve our understanding of sustainable management of this resource. Therefore, the aims of the current study were to identify predictors for the distribution of important wild yam species and to spatially predict their availability. To this end species abundance and environmental variables were collected in the field using a systematic sampling approach within a yams collection area of four villages (58 plots). A redundancy analysis (RDA) was conducted to investigate the relationship between wild yam species and 12 environmental variables. Species distribution models and species response curves were established for the most abundant wild yam species using nonparametric multiplicative regression (NPMR). These models were subsequently used in conjunction with geospatial data for predictive mapping. RDA depicted a clear pattern of species habitats with D. alatipes occurring in dry spiny forests on calcareous soils at remote places, while D. bemandry and D. fandra were found in forest habitats on sandy soils with high harvest intensities. The NPMR models explained 88% ( D. alatipes ), 82% ( D . bemandry ) and 37% ( D. fandra ) of the variation in species abundance. Sensitivity analysis indicated the importance of vegetation structure, human interventions, and soil characteristics in determining wild yam distribution. Predicted distribution maps showed that the population of wild yam is scarce and mostly located in restricted areas of open spiny forests and dry spiny forest thickets, where harvest intensity is high. This study highlights the need for long-term assessment and public awareness actions on yam harvest practices as well as the importance of anthropogenic factors for the distribution of yam as a key forest resource in SW Madagascar.

Despite the substantial area covered by grasslands in Madagascar (65%), the taxonomy of the grasses (Poaceae), which represent the main plant component of these vegetation types, is still understudied. Inventories and detailed specimen identification work from 1 2 localities in the Itremo Massif Protected Area allowed us to compile a list of grasses present in the area. In total, members of eight subfamilies, 56 genera, and 99 species have been recorded from the Itremo Massif. Grasslands cover 75% of the Itremo Massif Protected Area and are dominated by Panicoideae (65%) and by C 4 plants. The genera Eragrostis and Panicum , with nine and eight species respectively, are the best represented genera in Itremo. Eragrostis betsileensis and Tristachya betsileensis are the two species known to be local endemics. Twenty species are endemic to the central highlands, and a further 1 4 species are restricted to Madagascar. Five ecological groups of grasses were identified in the Itremo Massif: shade species in gallery forests, open wet area species, fire grasses, anthropogenic disturbance associated grasses and rock-dwelling grasses. Grasslands of the Itremo Massif are likely to be at least partly natural as shown by their richness in terms of endemic and native grass species. Conservation of such grasslands is thus an important issue, not only for grasses but for all species that inhabit these open canopy habitats.

Irregularity of flowering of the clove tree (Syzygium aromaticum) is an important issue for this perennial crop in Madagascar and in the other producing countries. This species is poorly studied and the factors determining flowering are not known. Inflorescences are produced by the terminal buds and field observations suggest that flowering is partly related to architectural factors, as it has been shown for fruit crops such as apple and mango. The aim of this work was to describe vegetative and reproductive growth and development of the clove tree, and to explore the relationships between vegetative traits and flowering. Three studies have been carried out. First, vegetative and reproductive phenological stages have been defined, based on morphological characteristics, shape, color, texture, and, when possible, on discontinuities of these characteristics. Second, leaf area expansion has been measured in winter and in summer from early phenological stage to leaf maturity. Third, vegetative traits related to morphology and phenology have been recorded on flowering and non-flowering axes in order to identify if flowering could be related to specific vegetative traits. Nine and eight phenological stages have been described for vegetative and reproductive development, respectively. Leaf area expansion followed a sigmoid shape. Leaf area expansion rate was related to leaf phenological stage and was affected by the season. It was higher in summer than in winter and was surprisingly low for a tropical tree. Morphological and phenological differences were observed between flowering and non-flowering axes. In particular, a growth arrest seemed to be necessary, but not sufficient, for flowering.

s Background This paper reports a study undertaken in three remote communities (Mahaboboka, Amboronabo, Mikoboka), located in Sakaraha, Southwestern Madagascar. Not only villages are far away from sanitary infrastructures and doctors but drugs and consulting fees are unaffordable to villagers. They rely essentially on natural resources for health care as for most of rural areas in Madagascar. This paper aims to document medicinal plants used by communities in Sakaraha and to present the most important plant species used in traditional medicine. Methods Semi – structured interview was conducted within 214 informants in 34 villages of the study area. Different ailments encountered in the site study were classified in various categories. For data analysis, frequency of citation (Fq), Informant Consensus Factor (Fic), Fidelity Level (FL) and Use Value (UV) were assessed to find agreement among informants about the use of plants as remedies. Mann-Whitney, Kruskall-Wallis and Spearman correlation tests were performed to determine use of medicinal plants following social status of informants. Results A total of 235 medicinal plant species belonging to 198 genera and 75 families were inventoried. The richest families in species used for medicinal purposes were: Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, and Poaceae. Plant species cited by informants were used to treat 76 various ailments classified in 13 categories. Leaves and leafy twigs were the most used plant parts and decoction was the mostly cited way of preparation of these medicinal plants species. In average, local people cited 6.7 ± 6.03 medicinal taxa among them, Cedrelopsis grevei is the most cited medicinal plants (Fq. 0.28). With Cedrelopsis grevei (UV = 0.48), Henonia scoparia (UV = 0.43) are mostly used species. Leonotis nepetifolia (FL = 96%) and Strychnos henningsii (FL = 92%) are plant species claimed by high percentage of informants to treat the Digestive System Disorder. Conclusions This study highlighted that medicinal plants used by people from three communities in the Southwestern Madagascar are diverse. These plants species ensure care to all family members including babies, children, mothers and adult people. Through this study, newly reported medicinal plants were identified for further work. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13002-017-0147-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Kitoza is a traditional meat product from Madagascar manufactured with strips of pork or beef. The process includes a first step of salting and mixing with spices followed by sun-drying or smoking step. As salting and drying select coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), our aim was to identify the CNS species in kitoza with the objective in the future of developing indigenous starters. Microbial analyses revealed that the only pathogenic bacterium enumerated was Staphylococcus aureus , which was found in 54% of the samples. The level of Enterobacteriaceae revealed a rather good hygienic quality of these products. CNS were confirmed in all the samples at high levels ranging from 5 to 7 log cfu/g. Identification of CNS species in a large collection of 829 isolates revealed 9 identified species, 7 for beef and 8 for pork kitoza. There were significant difference in the distribution of CNS species according to the type of meat and the process. Staphylococcus saprophyticus was the dominant species for sun-dried or smoked beef and sun-dried pork kitoza (73–75%), while for smoked pork kitoza Staphylococcus equorum (26%), S. saprophyticus (23%), Staphylococcus succinus (23%) and Staphylococcus epidermidis (17%) co-dominated. Some CNS could be used as indigenous starters in particular to compete against S. aureus .

Agnalavelo forest provides necessary natural resources to people who live in its surroundings (Communities of Mahaboboka, Amboronabo and Mikoboka in southwestern Madagascar). The aim of this study is to document goods and ecosystem services provided by Agnalavelo forest to local people and to use it as a tool for the identification of priorities for forest conservation. Oral interviews were undertaken from 2010–2013 with local communities living in the vicinity of Agnalavelo forest. This study also investigated forest resource use, conducted inventories of tree species, estimated wood biovolume, as well as the economic benefits associated with conservation due to carbon storage. Finally, we recorded felled trees caused by honey collection inside the forest and determine the cause for their slaughter. An investigation with the ownership of rice fields irrigated by rivers taking sources from Agnalavelo forest was also conducted. Based on field surveys and analysis, communities living around Agnalavelo forest draw substantial benefits for their daily life from the forest. Goods and ecosystem services are classified in the three categories (provisioning, cultural and regulating services) according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). Cultural services are highly valuable to local people as the forest is a dwelling place for their ancestor’s spirits. Agnalavelo forest provides Non Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) such as foods, tools, magic and medicinal plants and fresh water for local people. It is able to store 152 tons of carbon per hectare which is very important for climate regulation in this dry southwestern part of Madagascar. Endemic tree species hosting bee hives are often felled during harvesting period. Agnalavelo forest conservation is very important not only with regards to its biodiversity but also for goods and services that it provides to local population. RESUME La foret d’Agnalavelo, sur les communes de Mahaboboka, Amboronabo et Mikoboka, au sud-ouest de Madagascar, fournit les ressources naturelles necessaires pour la population riveraine. L’objectif de cette etude a ete de documenter les biens et les services eco-systemiques fournis par la foret d’Agnalavelo pour les populations locales, afin d’identifier les priorites pour la conservation de cette foret. Des enquetes aupres des communautes vivant a proximite de la foret Agnalavelo ont ete menees, entre 2010 et 2013, sur l'utilisation des ressources forestieres. Des inventaires ecologiques des especes d'arbres forestiers utilises ont ete realises pour determiner le biovolume ainsi que les benefices economiques associes a la conservation de la foret d’Agnalavelo par le stockage de carbone. Un inventaire des arbres abattus le long d'une piste forestiere et les causes de leurs abattages ont complete l’etude, ainsi que des enquetes aupres des proprietaires des rizieres irriguees par les rivieres qui prennent leurs sources dans la foret d’Agnalavelo qui ont revele que les communautes riveraines en tirent profit dans leur quotidien. La foret d’Agnalavelo offre trois categories de biens et services ecosystemiques, a savoir les services d’approvisionnement, les services culturels et les services de regulation. Les services culturels sont les plus importants pour la population locale. La foret d’Agnalavelo fournit les produits forestiers non ligneux tels que de la nourriture, des outils, des plantes considerees comme magiques, des plantes medicinales et de l'eau douce pour la population locale. La foret d’Agnalavelo peut stocker 152 tonnes de carbone par hectare, valeur importante pour la regulation du climat dans cette region seche de Madagascar. Des arbres appartenant a des especes endemiques de Madagascar et abritant des ruches sont souvent abattus lors de la recolte du miel. La conservation de la foret d’Agnalavelo est importante aussi bien pour la biodiversite qu’elle heberge que pour les biens et services des ecosystemes qu'elle fournit a la population locale.

The potential development of the four varieties of yam the most commonly cultivated in Madagascar, Dioscorea esculenta (Lour), and Dioscorea alata L. cv ovibe, ovilalaina, ovifotsy were determined in this study. A hedonic test showed the main effect of consumer origin and age as well as an interaction between the two factors. Regardless of age, consumers from yam regions preferred yams more than did consumers from regions where yams are not cultivated. In the latter regions, adult consumers preferred yams more than did children. Besides these differences in global appreciation of yams, D. esculenta (Lour) and the ovilalaina cultivar obtained the highest preference scores from all consumers. A descriptive test and physicochemical measures indicate that D. esculenta (Lour) and the ovilalaina cultivar contain more carbohydrates, starch and calories and are described as sweet and easy to swallow. Sweetness seems to be particularly sought by children from regions where yams are not cultivated.

Wilkin P., Hladik A., Jeannoda V. & Weber O. 2009. — The threatened edible yams of the Dioscorea sambiranensis R.Knuth species complex (Dioscoreaceae): a new species and subspecies. Adansonia, ser. 3, 31 (2): 249-266.

A revision of the Malagasy endemic species complex of yams (Dioscorea L.) which possesses flowers with campanulate tori is presented with keys and full descriptions. It comprises six species that were placed in Dioscorea sect. Seriflorae Burkill & H. Perrier and D. sect. Campanuliflorae Burkill & H. Perrier in the Flore de Madagascar et des Comores treatment. D. decaryana H. Perrier does not belong in the species complex. One species (D. kimiae Wilkin) is described and illustrated for the first time. It is found in light gaps in humid evergreen forest near Ambanizana on the Masoala peninsula and near Ranomafana in Fianarantsoa Prefecture. Recent collections demonstrate that D. madecassa H. Perrier and D. karatana Wilkin are conspecific, as are D. seriflora Jum. & H. Perrier and D. tanalarum H. Perrier. Three accepted species names (D. maciba Jum. & H. Perrier, D. seriflora Jum. & H. Perrier and D. tsaratananensis H. Perrier and two placed in synonymy (D. bararum H. Perrier and D. ovifotsy H. Perrier) are lectotypified. The species complex comprises one common, widespread species from deciduous Western vegetation, one widespread in humid eastern forests, and four with restricted distributions in evergreen forests of the Central Highlands and East of Madagascar. Their diversity and systematics are discussed.

International audience; A new species of Dioscorea from Morondava prefecture in Western Madagascar is described. Dioscorea bako Wilkin differs from D. alatipes Burkill & H. Perr. by its usually shallowly and irregularly lobed leaf margins, broader leaf blade (grey-green below), longer petiole and the broadly cuneate area where the petiole is inserted onto the leaf blade in the basal sinus. It is pubescent, especially densely on young shoots and inflorescences. It is endemic to Morondava Préfecture and is endangered under IUCN Red List category criteria (IUCN 2001). The unusual morphological features of its inflorescences, some of which are shared with D. alatipes are discussed. Dioscorea bako is a favoured food source for people of the Menabe region and is reported by them to be increasingly hard to find. Immediate conservation measures are necessary to ensure that it remains extant and, in the medium to long term, research should be undertaken to guide its sustainable utilisation.

Guide dâ entretien utilisĂŠ. (PDF 15 kb)

Background: Rural households in the Mahafaly region of semi-arid SW-Madagascar strongly depend on the exploitation of natural resources for their basic needs and income regeneration. An overuse of such resources threatens the natural environment and people’s livelihood. Our study focuses on the diversity and use of wild yams and medicinal plants. Methods: We hypothesized that knowledge on the use of these resources highly depends on farmers’ socio-economic household characteristics. To test this hypothesis, an ethnobotanical survey was conducted based on semi-structured interviews recording socio-economic base data and information on local knowledge of medicinal and wild yam species. This was followed by field inventories compiling plant material for botanical identification. Results: Six species of wild yam and a total of 214 medicinal plants from 68 families and 163 genera were identified. Cluster and discriminant analysis yielded two groups of households with different wealth status characterized by differences in livestock numbers, off-farm activities, agricultural land and harvests. A generalized linear model highlighted that economic factors significantly affect the collection of wild yams, whereas the use of medicinal plants depends to a higher degree on socio-cultural factors. Conclusions: Wild yams play an important role in local food security in the Mahafaly region, especially for poor farmers, and medicinal plants are a primary source of health care for the majority of local people. Our results indicate the influence of socio-economic household characteristics on the use of forest products and its intensity, which should be considered in future management plans for local and regional forest conservation.

Background Known worldwide as the “traveler’s tree”, the Malagasy endemic species Ravenala madagascariensis Sonn. (Strelitziaceae) is considered as an iconic symbol of Madagascar. It is a widespread species in the eastern part of the country with four different varieties which are well represented in Ambalabe community. All of them are used for different purposes and the species represents an important cultural value in the lives of the local population. However, uses of Ravenala are only generally well known by local population. Thus, in this study, we report on the different uses of Ravenala and its importance to the Ambalabe local people. Methods Semi-structured interviews among 116 people, 59 men and 57 women with ages ranging from 17 to 84 years old, free listing and market surveys were conducted in order to collect the vernacular names, the uses of Ravenala madagascariensis and the price of plant parts sold in local market. Then, the uses were categorized according to Cámara-Leret et al. classification. Results Different parts of the plant are currently used by local population, which are grouped as heart, trunk, leaves, petioles and rachis. Seven categories of use were recorded, most cited include: human food, utensils and tools, and house building. The most commonly used parts are trunk, heart, leaves and petioles for which the price varies between $3-15. Uses mentioned for construction (floor, roofs and wall), human food and utensils and tools are the most frequent and salient for local population. But the use of the plant as first materials for house building is revealed to be the most important for them. Conclusions Ravenala madagascariensis is very important to the Ambalabe communities because for local population, it represents the Betsimisaraka cultural and traditional use of the plant for house building. Moreover, none of its parts are discarded. The harvest and sale of R. madagascariensis for building materials can also provide an additional source of income to the family. Besides, using Ravenala in house construction reduces the use of slow growing trees and contributes to the sustainable use of natural forest resources.

Background This study focuses on the large outdoor markets of the capital of Madagascar, Antananarivo. As the largest metropolitan area in Madagascar with a population of nearly two million, the region has great capacity for consumption of medicinal plant remedies despite numerous pharmacies. Medicinal plant use spans all socioeconomic levels, and the diverse metropolitan population allows us to study a wide variety of people who consume these plants for medical purposes. The purpose of this study is to identify and generate a list of medicinal plants sold in the traditional markets with a focus on those collected in the forests around Antananarivo, get an idea of the quantities of medicinal plants sold in the markets around Antananarivo, and assess the economy of the medicinal plant markets. Methods In order to determine which medicinal plants are most consumed in Antananarivo, ethnobotanical enquiries were conducted in the five main markets of the capital city. Ethnobotanical surveys were conducted with medicinal plant traders, suppliers, harvesters and cultivators, with voucher specimens created from the plants discussed. Trade circuit information was established and the income generated by the trade of some of the species was assessed. Results The inventory of the Antananarivo markets resulted in a list of 89 commercialized plant species. Ten of the 89 were mentioned by 60-100 % of vendors. Profitability for vendors is high and competitive with other salaried positions within Antananarivo. Transportation costs are also high and therefore lower profitability for other members in the supply chain. Conclusions The markets of Antananarivo have always played a vital cultural role in the lives of urban Malagasy, but our study shows they also play an economic role not only for urban residents but rural harvesters as well. Continued research and monitoring of the non-timber forest products trade in Antananarivo is needed to better understand the impact of trade on the wild plant populations.

Kitoza is a traditional Malagasy meat product made from beef or pork. It is presented as 20–50 cm x 2–3 cm strips. Considered for a long time as a royal delicacy (1, 4), it still holds a special place in the daily meal of Malagasy people. Strips are salted, sun-dried and/or smoked either above the fire in the kitchen until consumption (2, 3) or in smoking units. Kitoza is no longer only prepared by housewives, it is also produced today commercially in modern facilities (butchers’ shops and a few processing firms). Processing techniques of the product are not always controlled and frequently cause variations in quality. Meat smoking can lead to contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydro­carbons (PAH) which are carcinogenic compounds (6). Among them, benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is a good indicator of carcinogenic compound contamination in cooked and smoked meat products.This study aimed to improve the smoking process of kitoza in order to reach moisture and phenol contents close to the tra­ditional product, while decreasing the PAH content by using charcoal and sawdust, since products smoked with these fuels show acceptable PAH levels (below European norms) (5). The unit operations of drying/cooking and smoking were also sepa­rated to ensure sufficient smoking and conduct drying/cooking in a configuration which might not generate PAH.The raw material used was pork ham cut into strips that were then salted at 10 g/kg of meat. Kinetics of water loss, phenols and BaP gain during smoking assays with only wood, and assays alternating cooking/drying with charcoal and smoking with saw­dust phases were assessed. The different treatments consisted in: (i) cooking/drying with charcoal (4 h) and smoking with sawdust (2 h), (ii) smoking with sawdust (2 h) and cooking/drying with charcoal (4 h), and (iii) cooking/drying/smoking with small bricks of wood (6 h). Each treatment was repeated three times.Figure 1 shows the evolution of the air temperature in contact with the meat during smoking. We tried to stabilize the smok­ing unit temperature at about 100°C, since it was the average temperature in the traditional smoking process. The temperature in the traditional process seemed 10-20°C below those of the experimental treatments (Figure 2). However, Figure 3 shows that water contents (55%) were not significantly different in experi­mental Kitoza compared to the traditional one. After 6 hours of heat treatment, the moisture content was between 40 and 50%.Kinetics of total phenol accumulation on meat strips (expressed on a dry basis) are shown in Figure 4. The traditional process reached about 5 mg/100 g total phenols at end point. The charcoal-saw­dust treatment induced a slight and linear increase in phenols as soon as sawdust was added (i.e. after 4 hours of charcoal cooking/ drying). Phenol content reached about 4 mg/100 g after 2 hours of smoking, a value close to that of the traditionally-processed prod­uct. Phenol contents obtained with sawdust-charcoal and wood treatments reached higher levels (about 10 mg/100 g) than that of the traditional one (5 mg/100 g). The sawdust-charcoal treatment provoked very fast and efficient phenol deposit in the beginning, comparable to that of wood alone. It could be explained by the high moisture content of the surface layers of the meat strips in the first period of the process. The phenol content peaked after about one hour of exposure to sawdust smoke. The phenol con­tent remained then unchanged until the end of the process. Since this parameter was expressed on a dry basis, it would mean that the deposited phenols remained in the meat strips and were not destroyed neither did they evaporate. Figure 5 shows the kinet­ics of BaP accumulation on strips on a wet basis. Regardless of the duration of charcoal-sawdust or sawdust-charcoal treatments, BaP contents were lower than 2 μg/kg. For these two treatments, a slight increase was recorded after 3 hours in relation with the concentration effect due to water evaporation. In the wood treat­ment, accumulation was linear and BaP reached very high levels: 20 ppb after 2.5 hours and 40 ppb after 6 hours. In the traditional process, 8 ppb were reached after 2.5 hours. In the latter two cases, this could be related to wood pyrolysis at high temperature in a system allowing direct exposure to fire.Processes without wood are very promising to reduce PAH accu­mulation during drying and smoking. Compared with the tradi­tional process, splitting operations between cooking/drying with charcoal on one hand, and smoking with sawdust on the other hand allowed the same decrease in water content, effective phenol deposit which could be modulated according to the desired result, and decrease in PAH content in compliance with new European Union regulations. Reengineered products will be subjected to sen­sory and consumer acceptance analyses with Malagasy consumers, and the duration of preservation will also be assessed.

International audience; A new species of yam (Dioscorea orangeana Wilkin) is described and illustrated. It differs from D. comorensis R.Knuth by having undulate leaf margins and a broader torus and tepals in both the male and female flowers. In female flowers of D. orangeana the floral stipe between the ovary and the torus is shorter than in D. comorensis. The tuber morphology of the species is atypical among Malagasy species in that there are several digitate lobes rather than a single tuber per growing season, although more research is needed on tuber morphology. D. orangeana is reported to be edible. It is endemic to the Forêt d'Orangea near Diego Suarez (Antsiranana) in Antsiranana Préfecture. Its conservation and sustainable use are thus matters of concern.

Despite their prevalence in both developed and developing countries, there have been surprisingly few field assessments of the ecological effectiveness of protected areas. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a key protected area in eastern Madagascar, Ranomafana National Park (RNP). We established paired 100 x 4-m vegetation transects (400 m(2)) within RNP and in remnant forests in the park's peripheral zone. In each 400-m(2) plot, all woody stems1.5 cm in diameter at breast height were measured and identified to species. All species were also identified as native or non-native. We identified utilitarian species within all transects and they were sorted into use category. We calculated plot-level taxonomic biodiversity and functional diversity of utilitarian species; the latter was calculated by clustering the multivariate distances between species based on their utilitarian traits, and all metrics were tested using paired t-tests. Our results showed that there was significantly higher biodiversity inside RNP than in remnant forests and this pattern was consistent across all diversity metrics examined. Forests not located within the park's boundary had significantly higher non-native species than within RNP. There was no statistically significant difference in functional diversity of utilitarian species inside RNP vs. remnant forests; however, the overall trend was toward higher diversity inside park boundaries. These findings suggested that RNP has been effective at maintaining taxonomic diversity relative to surrounding unprotected areas and restricting the spread of non-native plants. The results also suggested that low functional redundancy of forests outside of RNP might be of concern, because residents in surrounding villages may have few other substitutes for the services provided by species that are of critical importance to their livelihoods. This study highlights the challenges of trying to reconcile biodiversity conservation with human use of natural resources in economically poor, remote areas.

Background Traditional medicine remains the only health care available in many rural areas in Madagascar like the rural community of Ambalabe, located in a very remote area in the eastern part of the country. With limited access to modern medicine, the local population uses medicinal plants to treat most diseases. In this study, we aimed to inventory medicinal plants used by local people and how those relate to the treatment of the most frequent diseases encountered in Ambalabe. Methods We interviewed participants in order to identify the most frequent diseases in the region and the medicinal plants used to treat them. The local physician was asked about the most frequent diseases, and ethnobotanical surveys to record medicinal plants and their uses, using semi-structured interviews and free listing, were conducted among 193 informants in local villages, of which 54 % were men and 46 % were women, ageing from 16 to 86 years. The local names, the uses of each plant species and the way they are prepared and administered were recorded and accompanied by herbarium specimens for identification. We also interviewed four traditional healers to elicit more details on the preparation and the use of plants. Results Our research allowed us to identify six most frequent diseases, namely diarrhea, malaria, stomach-ache, cough, bilharzia and dysentery. Among 209 plant species identified as having medicinal use, 83 species belonging to 49 families and 77 genera were used to treat these diseases. Our analyses highlighted the 11 commonly used species for their treatment, and also 16 species with a high fidelity level (FL ≥ 75 %) for each ailment. Diarrhea is one of the diseases with high number of species recorded. Conclusions This study highlighted the closed relationship between people in Ambalabe and plant species, especially when faced with frequent diseases. However, most of the species used were collected in the surroundings of the villages. Few species were from Vohibe forest in which a management system on the use of plant species was already established. Therefore, a sustainable use management should be considered for wild species from which medicinal plants are highly abundant.