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Summary Increasing population, expansion of urban areas and rapid urbanization are the main causes of losing green spaces, which results in many environmental problems and threatens the quality of urban life. Urban green spaces are of great importance and urban planning issues nowadays gain increasing popularity. It is realized that biological methodologies need to be used in urban planning, otherwise the quality of life will be more threatened. In order to discover the meaning and importance of green corridors in urban areas, a literature review was undertaken. Boulevards, as green corridors, are very important linear parts in the structures of dense modern cities. If planned and designed properly, they mitigate the negative effects of densely built urban environment. Green corridors provide numerous environmental benefits, they are an essential factor of sustainability and have a significant impact on biodiversity. Green corridors also provide social benefits, by enhancing well-being through contact with nature. They decrease health problems and improve the quality of life. The importance of urban green corridors was observed and presented on the example of Blvd. Bosnia and Herzegovina and Blvd. Hristijan Todorovski Karposh, which form an important ecological network in the northern part of Skopje, North Macedonia. The emphasis is on planning, designing and improving green corridors in urban areas like Skopje. Although these two boulevards are well designed as green corridors, with preserved old line greenery, planted with many different plant species (trees, shrubs, perennials), covered by grass, with bicycle and pedestrian paths, there is still potential for improvement. Linear parks on both sides of the new part of the Blvd. Hristijan Todorovski Karposh would be a great idea.

Europe has a history rich in examples of successful and less successful introductions of non-native trees (NNT) - trees with an evolutionary origin outside of Europe. NNT have been introduced for various reasons such as ornamental purposes, food production, land reclamation/amelioration and timber production. The use of NNT also causes controversies due to potential negative impacts on natural ecosystems of NNT that become invasive. Many international legal frameworks responded to the presence and use of NNT, such as international treaties and conventions ; and also the European Union deals with the issue of invasive alien species in Regulation (EU) No. 1143/2014. However, especially the national and regional responses to NNT affect current and future management decisions in the forest sector and furthermore shape forest landscapes of Europe. In this comprehensive study of the legal landscape concerning NNT we identified all relevant legislations, the different legal approaches and the regulatory intensity in every European country (except microstates). Hard and relevant soft law items at the national and sub-national (regional) level for 40 European countries were collected and proofed using a targeted questionnaire sent to country experts across Europe mainly coming from the forestry and nature conservation sector. In addition, international and national legislation information systems and databases were consulted to complete the information. Legislations included updates until June/July 2019. In total, 320 national and regional law items were identified to be relevant for the regulation of NNT in the investigated 116 legislative units (countries, and regions with own legislation) in Europe. Countries and regions were empirically categorised according to ad hoc created legislation indicators dealing with the general ban of introduction of non-native species, the generally allowed and prohibited NNT, approval mechanisms, e.g. mandatory forest management plans, and areas and cases where NNT are restricted or completely prohibited. Our study revealed a very diverse legal landscape in Europe, with a large variety of approaches being pursued to regulate NNT, and the intensity of regulation ranging from very little restrictions on the species choice and plantation surface area to a complete ban of NNT in forests.

Non-native forest tree species have been introduced in Europe since the 16th century, but only in the second half of the 20th century the significance of the seed source origin for their economic use was recognized, resulting in the establishment of numerous provenance trials at a national, regional, European and International level, as those led by IUFRO. Breeding programs have also been launched in the continent for the most economically important species. Aim of this work is the formulation of provenance recommendations for planting of five non-native tree species in Europe (Douglas fir, grand fir, Sitka spruce, lodgepole pine and black locust), based on the information obtained from twenty countries, in the frame of the EU FP-1403 NNEXT Cost Action. The survey revealed that official and non-official national recommendations, based on provenance research results, have been elaborated and followed at a different level and extend for the above five species, but only for Douglas fir recommendations exist in almost all the participating to the survey countries. The compilation of provenance recommendations across Europe for each species is presented in the current work. Besides the recommended introduced seed sources, European seed sources are also preferred for planting, due to ease of access and high availability of forest reproductive material. European breeding programs yielding genetic material of high productivity and quality constitute currently the seed source of choice for several species and countries. Consolidation of trial data obtained across countries will allow the joint analysis that is urgently needed to draw solid conclusions, and will facilitate the development of ‘Universal-Response-Functions’ for the species of interest, rendering possible the identification of the genetic material suitable for global change. New provenance trial series that will test seed sources from the entire climatic range of the species, established in sites falling within and outside the environmental envelopes of their natural ranges, are urgently needed to pinpoint and understand the species-specific climate constraints, as well as to correlate functional traits to the seed origin and the environmental conditions of the test sites, so that the selection of suitable forest reproductive material of non-native tree species in the face of climate change can be feasible, This paper is an output from the European COST Action FP1403 ‘Non-native tree species for European forests—experiences, risks and opportunities’ (NNEXT), and specifically the Working group “Pathways”, in which all authors participated and contributed information in the relevant questionnaire

The City Park in Skopje was established in the early 20th century. There are not many historical data about its establishment. Only modest documentation could be found, for the period between the two world wars. At the beginning of the 20th century in Skopje a couple of avenues and green areas have been built. The bigger green area was the one on the location where today’s City Park is built. It was called “Islahane”, after the craft school around which it was established. Its establishment is connected with Hafiz Mehmed Pasha and the period of Ottomans domination in Macedonia. Built in 1905, it spread out over 16 000 m2 and was organized in a classical, geometric style, with trees, shrubs, floral elements and pathways. It was founded on where today’s City Park is located. Through the years it has changed until it got today’s dimensions and borders. The biggest change in its structure was made in the ‘70s of the 20th century when the basic main project for the City Park was made. In the last ten years intensive work on its reconstruction has been done, so there is more relevant data for the Park for this recent period of time. Besides its establishment, this paper presents the current state of the Park, its main characteristics and functions. It gives a review of the vegetation and other park elements, as well the state of its overall area and the changes that have occurred to date.

The aim of this study was to assess how the expansion of Calamagrostis epigejos influences the species composition and diversity of forest, clearing, and meadow communities as well as how habitat factors influence biometric variability and features determining the potential of Calamagrostis epigejos for expansion in the studied communities. The study was conducted in the central part of the Sudetes Mountains (SW Poland). Four types of communities with C. epigejos occurrence were chosen: a beech forest (Luzulo luzuloidis-Fagetum), a Norway spruce monoculture, a clearing community belonging to the Epilobietea angustifolii class, and a mesic mountain meadow of the Arrhenatheretalia order. In each of the studied communities, randomized selection of 10 plots (1 x 1 m) was performed. On these plots releves were sampled, a biometric study was conducted, and soil samples were collected. The research revealed a significant influence of C. epigejos expansion on the species composition, diversity, and productivity in the herb layers of the studied communities. It also indicated a strong positive influence of sunlight availability and studied physicochemical properties of soil on the expansion ability of C. epigejos.

Conservation of forest biological diversity, which includes forest genetic resources, is essential for sustaining the productive value of forests, and for maintaining the health and vitality of forest ecosystems and thereby maintaining their protective, environmental and cultural roles. The purpose of conserving of forest genetic resources is to maintain hereditary variation in species and local populations far into the future so that their viability and adaptability would be sufficient to cope with changing environmental conditions. Since forest genetic resources are essential part of the adaptation processes of populations and tree species in a changing environment, their conservation and appropriate management have a crucial importance for sustainable forest management. Thus, forests need to be managed in a way that ensures their sustainable utilization, safeguarding the ecological process and genetic diversity essential for the maintenance of the resource base. In this paper a general introduction is given to the state of forest genetic resources conservation in FYR Macedonia with comprehensive overview of policies with respect to their conservation and management. Based on the current situation of conservation of forest genetic resources, some strategic suggestions concerning the future development of genetic conservation is given, taking into consideration the conservation objectives and future trends of great impact on existing forest genetic resources. National policies and regulatory frameworks that target forest genetic resources in Macedonia are partial and inadequate. Most relevant policies neglect the importance of forest genetic resources, but rather use it in the context of biological diversity. Sound social and economic policies are needed at national level to ensure the integration of forest genetic resources into wider national forest policy frameworks and thereby promote the sustainable management of forest genetic resources.

The principal objective of national parks as protected areas is to preserve forest ecosystems, but at the same time they may serve genetic conservation. The Macedonian pine (Pinus peuce Griseb.) is a five-needle pine native to the Balkan peninsula, occupying an area of 2 500 hectares at Pelister National Park (NP). The native populations of Macedonian pine in Pelister NP represent an especially valuable genetic resource for conservation. In situ and ex situ methods were implemented for the conservation of Macedonian pine genetic resources in Pelister NP. In situ conservation has aimed at preserving an existing, native population of Macedonian pine within the community of which it forms a part and in the environment to which it is adapted. An ex situ conservation of Macedonian pine in Pelister NP was also considered and carried out, but only to the extent that it enhanced the goals of the previous in situ genetic conservation activities. The overall conservation approach applied involves preserving not only associated flora, fauna, and ecosystem processes, but maintaining the Macedonian pine populations in Pelister NP within a dynamic environment in which the genetic variation can continue to respond to natural influences.