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Kamen V Vlassakov, Igor Kissin Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA Abstract: The aim of this study was to assess progress in the field of anesthesia monitoring over the past 40 years using scientometric analysis. The following scientometric indexes were used: popularity indexes (general and specific), representing the proportion of articles on either a topic relative to all articles in the field of anesthetics (general popularity index, GPI) or the subfield of anesthesia monitoring (specific popularity index, SPI); index of change (IC), representing the degree of growth in publications on a topic from one period to the next; and index of expectations (IE), representing the ratio of the number of articles on a topic in the top 20 journals relative to the number of articles in all (>5,000) biomedical journals covered by PubMed. Publications on 33 anesthesia-monitoring topics were assessed. Our analysis showed that over the past 40 years, the rate of rise in the number of articles on anesthesia monitoring was exponential, with an increase of more than eleven-fold, from 296 articles over the 5-year period 1974–1978 to 3,394 articles for 2009–2013. This rise profoundly exceeded the rate of rise of the number of articles on general anesthetics. The difference was especially evident with the comparison of the related GPIs: stable growth of the GPI for anesthesia monitoring vs constant decline in the GPI for general anesthetics. By the 2009–2013 period, among specific monitoring topics introduced after 1980, the SPI index had a meaningful magnitude (≥1.5) in 9 of 24 topics: Bispectral Index (7.8), Transesophageal Echocardiography (4.2), Electromyo­graphy (2.8), Pulse Oximetry (2.4), Entropy (2.3), Train-of-four (2.3), Capnography (1.9), Pulse Contour (1.9), and Electrical Nerve Stimulation for neuromuscular monitoring (1.6). Only one of these topics (Pulse Contour) demonstrated (in 2009–2013) high values for both IC and IE indexes (76 and 16.9, respectively), indicating significant recent progress. We suggest that rapid growth in the field of anesthetic monitoring was one of the most important developments to compensate for the intrinsically low margins of safety of anesthetic agents. Keywords: anesthesia-related morbidity, anesthesia-related mortality, anesthetics, general anesthesia, regional anesthesia

Kamen V Vlassakov, Igor Kissin Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA Abstract: The aim of this study was to assess progress in the field of anesthetic drugs over the past 30 years using scientometric indices: popularity indices (general and specific), representing the proportion of articles on a drug relative to all articles in the field of anesthetics (general index) or the subfield of a specific class of anesthetics (specific index); index of change, representing the degree of growth in publications on a topic from one period to the next; index of expectations, representing the ratio of the number of articles on a topic in the top 20 journals relative to the number of articles in all (>5,000) biomedical journals covered by PubMed; and index of ultimate success, representing a publication outcome when a new drug takes the place of a common drug previously used for the same purpose. Publications on 58 topics were assessed during six 5-year periods from 1984 to 2013. Our analysis showed that during 2009–2013, out of seven anesthetics with a high general popularity index (≥2.0), only two were introduced after 1980, ie, the inhaled anesthetic sevoflurane and the local anesthetic ropivacaine; however, only sevoflurane had a high index of expectations (12.1). Among anesthetic adjuncts, in 2009–2013, only one agent, sugammadex, had both an extremely high index of change (>100) and a high index of expectations (25.0), reflecting the novelty of its mechanism of action. The index of ultimate success was positive with three anesthetics, ie, lidocaine, isoflurane, and propofol, all of which were introduced much longer than 30 years ago. For the past 30 years, there were no new anesthetics that have produced changes in scientometric indices indicating real progress. Keywords: anesthetics, anesthetic adjuvants, mortality, safety margins, therapeutic indices

Darin J Correll, Kamen V Vlassakov, Igor Kissin Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA Abstract: Over the past 2 decades, many new techniques and drugs for the treatment of acute pain have achieved widespread use. The main aim of this study was to assess the progress in their implementation using scientometric analysis. The following scientometric indices were used: 1) popularity index, representing the share of articles on a specific technique (or a drug) relative to all articles in the field of acute pain; 2) index of change, representing the degree of growth in publications on a topic compared to the previous period; and 3) index of expectations, representing the ratio of the number of articles on a topic in the top 20 journals relative to the number of articles in all (>5,000) biomedical journals covered by PubMed. Publications on specific topics (ten techniques and 21 drugs) were assessed during four time periods (1993–1997, 1998–2002, 2003–2007, and 2008–2012). In addition, to determine whether the status of routine acute pain management has improved over the past 20 years, we analyzed surveys designed to be representative of the national population that reflected direct responses of patients reporting pain scores. By the 2008–2012 period, popularity index had reached a substantial level (≥5%) only with techniques or drugs that were introduced 30–50 years ago or more (epidural analgesia, patient-controlled analgesia, nerve blocks, epidural analgesia for labor or delivery, bupivacaine, and acetaminophen). In 2008–2012, promising (although modest) changes of index of change and index of expectations were found only with dexamethasone. Six national surveys conducted for the past 20 years demonstrated an unacceptably high percentage of patients experiencing moderate or severe pain with not even a trend toward outcome improvement. Thus, techniques or drugs that were introduced and achieved widespread use for acute pain management within the past 20 years have produced no changes in scientometric indices that would indicate real progress and have failed to improve national outcomes for relief of acute pain. Two possible reasons for this are discussed: 1) the difference between the effectiveness of old and new techniques is not clinically meaningful; and 2) resources necessary for appropriate use of new techniques in routine pain management are not adequate. Keywords: continuous nerve block, epidural analgesia, multimodal analgesia, nerve block, pain management, patient-controlled intravenous analgesia, patient-controlled epidural analgesia, postoperative pain

Background: Electrical storm (ES) patients who fail standard therapies have a high mortality rate. Previous studies report effective management of ES with bedside, ultrasound-guided percutaneous stellate ganglion block (SGB). We report our experience with sympathetic blockade administered via a novel alternative approach: proximal intercostal block (PICB). Compared with SGB, this technique targets an area typically free of other catheters and support devices, and may pose less strict requirements for anticoagulation interruption, along with lower risk of focal neurological side effects., Objectives: The authors sought to describe the safety and efficacy of PICB in patients with refractory ES., Methods: We reviewed our institutional data on ES patients who underwent PICB between January 2018 and February 2023 to analyze procedural safety and short- and long-term outcomes., Results: A total of 15 consecutive patients with ES underwent PICB during this period. Of those, 11 patients (73.3%) were maintained on PICB alone, and 4 patients (26.6%) were maintained on combined block with SGB and PICB. Overall, 72.7% patients who were maintained on PICB alone and 77.8% patients who were maintained on bilateral PICB had excellent arrhythmia suppression. After PICB, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapies were significantly reduced (P < 0.05), with 93.3% of patients receiving PICB having no implantable cardioverter-defibrillator shock until discharge or heart transplant. Anticoagulation was continued in all patients and there were no procedure-related complications. Apart from mild transient neurological symptoms seen in 3 patients, no significant neurological or hemodynamic sequelae were observed., Conclusions: In patients with refractory ES, continuous PICB provided safe and effective sympathetic block (77.8% ventricular arrhythmia suppression), achievable without interruption of anticoagulation, and without significant side effects., Competing Interests: Funding Support and Author Disclosures The authors have reported that they have no relationships relevant to the contents of this paper to disclose., (Copyright © 2024 American College of Cardiology Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT) is an arrhythmogenic disorder characterized by episodes of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia. Clinically, patients who have CPVT present with juvenile sudden death or stress-induced syncope. We present a case of an 18-year-old girl with CPVT resistant to traditional pharmacotherapies. Instead of a typical stellate ganglion block (SGB), the patient underwent bilateral continuous proximal intercostal blocks that successfully inhibited arrhythmogenic events. This therapeutic method may provide an alternative to SGBs and demonstrates proof of concept for an early elective intervention to be included in the diagnostic and therapeutic algorithm for patients with CPVT., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest: See Disclosures at the end of the article., (Copyright © 2024 International Anesthesia Research Society.)

Background: The neuroinflammatory response to surgery can be characterized by peripheral acute plasma protein changes in blood, but corresponding, persisting alterations in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) proteins remain mostly unknown. Using the SOMAscan assay, we define acute and longer-term proteome changes associated with surgery in plasma and CSF. We hypothesized that biological pathways identified by these proteins would be in the categories of neuroinflammation and neuronal function and define neuroinflammatory proteome changes associated with surgery in older patients., Methods: SOMAscan analyzed 1305 proteins in blood plasma (n = 14) and CSF (n = 15) samples from older patients enrolled in the Role of Inflammation after Surgery for Elders (RISE) study undergoing elective hip and knee replacement surgery with spinal anesthesia. Systems biology analysis identified biological pathways enriched among the surgery-associated differentially expressed proteins in plasma and CSF., Results: Comparison of postoperative day 1 (POD1) to preoperative (PREOP) plasma protein levels identified 343 proteins with postsurgical changes ( P < .05; absolute value of the fold change [|FC|] > 1.2). Comparing postoperative 1-month (PO1MO) plasma and CSF with PREOP identified 67 proteins in plasma and 79 proteins in CSF with altered levels ( P < .05; |FC| > 1.2). In plasma, 21 proteins, primarily linked to immune response and inflammation, were similarly changed at POD1 and PO1MO. Comparison of plasma to CSF at PO1MO identified 8 shared proteins. Comparison of plasma at POD1 to CSF at PO1MO identified a larger number, 15 proteins in common, most of which are regulated by interleukin-6 (IL-6) or transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGFB1) and linked to the inflammatory response. Of the 79 CSF PO1MO-specific proteins, many are involved in neuronal function and neuroinflammation., Conclusions: SOMAscan can characterize both short- and long-term surgery-induced protein alterations in plasma and CSF. Acute plasma protein changes at POD1 parallel changes in PO1MO CSF and suggest 15 potential biomarkers for longer-term neuroinflammation that warrant further investigation., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2022 International Anesthesia Research Society.)

Acute pain is one of the most frequent, and yet one of the most challenging, complaints physicians encounter in the emergency department (ED). Currently, opioids are one of several pain medications given for acute pain, but given the long-term side effects and potential for abuse, alternative pain regimens are sought. Ultrasound-guided nerve blocks (UGNB) can provide quick and sufficient pain control and therefore can be considered a component of a physician's multimodal pain plan in the ED. As UGNB are more widely implemented at the point of care, guidelines are needed to assist emergency providers to acquire the skill necessary to incorporate them into their acute pain management., Competing Interests: Andrew Goldsmith holds a grant from Massachusetts Life Sciences, has received consulting fees from Phillips, Exo, and Bain Capital, and has received honoraria from Indian Health Services. Arun Nagdev holds stock options in Exo Inc., and is a salaried employee of Exo Inc., (Copyright (c) 2022 Joseph Brown, Andrew Goldsmith, Alexis LaPietra, Jose Zeballos, Kamen Vlassakov, Alexander Stone, R. Starr Knight, Jennifer Carnell, Arun Nagdev.)

Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Background: Our understanding of the relationship between plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) remains limited, which poses an obstacle to the identification of blood-based markers of neuroinflammatory disorders. To better understand the relationship between peripheral and central nervous system (CNS) markers of inflammation before and after surgery, we aimed to examine whether surgery compromises the blood-brain barrier (BBB), evaluate postoperative changes in inflammatory markers, and assess the correlations between plasma and CSF levels of inflammation., Methods: We examined the Role of Inflammation after Surgery for Elders (RISE) study of adults aged ≥ 65 who underwent elective hip or knee surgery under spinal anesthesia who had plasma and CSF samples collected at baseline and postoperative 1 month (PO1MO) (n = 29). Plasma and CSF levels of three inflammatory markers previously identified as increasing after surgery were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay: interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-reactive protein (CRP), and chitinase 3-like protein (also known as YKL-40). The integrity of the BBB was computed as the ratio of CSF/plasma albumin levels (Qalb). Mean Qalb and levels of inflammation were compared between baseline and PO1MO. Spearman correlation coefficients were used to determine the correlation between biofluids., Results: Mean Qalb did not change between baseline and PO1MO. Mean plasma and CSF levels of CRP and plasma levels of YKL-40 and IL-6 were higher on PO1MO relative to baseline, with a disproportionally higher increase in CRP CSF levels relative to plasma levels (CRP tripled in CSF vs. increased 10% in plasma). Significant plasma-CSF correlations for CRP (baseline r = 0.70 and PO1MO r = 0.89, p < .01 for both) and IL-6 (PO1MO r = 0.48, p < .01) were observed, with higher correlations on PO1MO compared with baseline., Conclusions: In this elective surgical sample of older adults, BBB integrity was similar between baseline and PO1MO, plasma-CSF correlations were observed for CRP and IL-6, plasma levels of all three markers (CRP, IL-6, and YKL-40) increased from PREOP to PO1MO, and CSF levels of only CRP increased between the two time points. Our identification of potential promising plasma markers of inflammation in the CNS may facilitate the early identification of patients at greatest risk for neuroinflammation and its associated adverse cognitive outcomes.

Background: The ultrasound-guided retroclavicular block (RCB) is a recently described alternative approach to brachial plexus blockade at the level of the cords. Although more distal blockade of the brachial plexus is thought to be associated with a lower incidence of phrenic nerve block, the impact of RCB on ipsilateral diaphragmatic function has not been formally investigated., Objective: To compare the effects of supraclavicular and retroclavicular brachial plexus block on diaphragmatic function., Setting: A single tertiary hospital, study period from December 2017 to May 2019., Design: Double-blinded, randomised study., Patients: A total of 40 patients undergoing upper extremity surgery below the axilla. Exclusion criteria included significant pulmonary disease, BMI more than 40 and contra-indication to peripheral nerve block., Interventions: Patients were randomised to supraclavicular or retroclavicular brachial plexus block with ropivacaine 0.5%., Outcome Measures: Phrenic block was assessed by measuring changes in diaphragmatic excursion using M-mode ultrasound, and maximum inspiratory volume on incentive spirometry from baseline, at 15 and 30 min postblock, and postoperatively. Comparative assessment of block characteristics included timing and distribution of sensory and motor block onset in the upper extremity, and scanning and block performance times., Results: The incidence of phrenic block in the supraclavicular group was higher by ultrasound imaging (70 vs. 15%) and also by pulmonary function testing (55 vs. 5%), with both diaphragmatic excursion and maximum inspiratory volume decreasing to a greater extent after supraclavicular block (SCB) compared with RCB at 15, 30 min and postoperative time points (repeated measures analysis of variance, P < 0.001). There was no difference in timing and extent of distal arm block, but suprascapular and axillary nerves were more consistently blocked after SCB than after RCB., Conclusion: The current study confirms the hypothesis that a RCB is significantly less likely to affect ipsilateral diaphragmatic function than a SCB., Trial Registration: Clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT02631122.

Introduction: The Role of Inflammation after Surgery for Elders study correlates novel inflammatory markers measured in blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) assays, and [ 11 C]-PBR28 positron-emission tomography imaging., Methods: This study involved a prospective cohort design with patients who underwent elective hip and knee arthroplasty under spinal anesthesia. Sixty-five adults participated with their family members. Inflammatory biomarker assays were measured preoperatively on day 1 and postoperatively at one month., Results: On average, participants were 75 years old, and 72% were female. 54% underwent total knee arthroplasty, and 46% underwent total hip arthroplasty. The mean Modified Mini-Mental State (3MS) Examination score was 89.3; four patients (6%) scored ≤77 points. Plasma assays were completed in 63 (97%) participants, cerebrospinal fluid assays in 61 (94%), and PET imaging in 44 (68%)., Discussion: This complex study presents an innovative effort to correlate peripheral and central inflammatory biomarkers before and after major surgery in older adults. Strengths include collecting concurrent blood, cerebrospinal fluid, and positron-emission tomography with detailed clinical characterization of delirium, cognition, and functional status., (© 2019 The Authors.)

Background: Postoperative delirium and postoperative cognitive dysfunction share risk factors and may co-occur, but their relationship is not well established. The primary goals of this study were to describe the prevalence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction and to investigate its association with in-hospital delirium. The authors hypothesized that delirium would be a significant risk factor for postoperative cognitive dysfunction during follow-up., Methods: This study used data from an observational study of cognitive outcomes after major noncardiac surgery, the Successful Aging after Elective Surgery study. Postoperative delirium was evaluated each hospital day with confusion assessment method-based interviews supplemented by chart reviews. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction was determined using methods adapted from the International Study of Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction. Associations between delirium and postoperative cognitive dysfunction were examined at 1, 2, and 6 months., Results: One hundred thirty-four of 560 participants (24%) developed delirium during hospitalization. Slightly fewer than half (47%, 256 of 548) met the International Study of Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction-defined threshold for postoperative cognitive dysfunction at 1 month, but this proportion decreased at 2 months (23%, 123 of 536) and 6 months (16%, 85 of 528). At each follow-up, the level of agreement between delirium and postoperative cognitive dysfunction was poor (kappa less than .08) and correlations were small (r less than .16). The relative risk of postoperative cognitive dysfunction was significantly elevated for patients with a history of postoperative delirium at 1 month (relative risk = 1.34; 95% CI, 1.07-1.67), but not 2 months (relative risk = 1.08; 95% CI, 0.72-1.64), or 6 months (relative risk = 1.21; 95% CI, 0.71-2.09)., Conclusions: Delirium significantly increased the risk of postoperative cognitive dysfunction in the first postoperative month; this relationship did not hold in longer-term follow-up. At each evaluation, postoperative cognitive dysfunction was more common among patients without delirium. Postoperative delirium and postoperative cognitive dysfunction may be distinct manifestations of perioperative neurocognitive deficits.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine how interest in various general anesthetics among the authors of academic publications changed over the past 50 years., Methods: Publication-based academic interest were analyzed using specific scientometric indices: popularity index (PI), top journal selectivity index (TJSI), and index of change (IC). Terms used for searches were the names of drugs belonging to two pharmacological classes of general anesthetics - inhaled and intravenous. Only those that had a PI value > 2.0 during at least one of the 10 five-year periods, from 1967 to 2016, were selected., Results: The PI, an index of comparative popularity, reflects a consistent decline in academic interest over time in both classes of general anesthetics. Over the past 25 years, the PI of inhaled anesthetics decreased by 52 %, and that of intravenous anesthetics fell by 32%. At the same time, the PI of anesthesia management increased by 167%. Among individual anesthetics, the most impressive change was a profound decline in halothane's PI, from 22.9 in 1972-1976 to 0.5 in 2012-2016. The interest in halothane was gradually supplanted by that in new agents, initially by enflurane, followed by isoflurane and finally, sevoflurane. The next meaningful change was the gradual rise in sevoflurane's PI to surpass that of isoflurane. The most dramatic change among the PIs of intravenous anesthetics was associated with the introduction of propofol: an increase from 1.8 to its maximum of 13.6., Conclusions: The study revealed a constant decline over time in academic interest in the pharmacological basis of general anesthesia relative to all fields of anesthesia combined., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The aim of this study was to delineate research reflecting advances in regional/local anesthesia where recent clinical progress was clearly defined by meta-analysis., Methods: We conducted a search to identify all articles with meta-analyses of randomized clinical trials related to the field of regional/local anesthesia. From 279 titles, after multiple exclusions, 16 meta-analyses on important clinical practice developments with high potential for a positive conclusion on the effectiveness of the treatment were left for the assessment. The assessment was performed in two steps. The first step was related to verification of proof-of-concept: the effect is statistically reliable (p-value, effect size, heterogeneity across different RCTs) and the risk of bias not too high. The second step was devoted to attempts to form an opinion on the real clinical benefits of a new development., Results: The assessment revealed that seven recent developments passed the proof-of-concept step. At the same time, positive conclusion on real clinical benefits was reached only by one of these seven developments: ultrasound guidance for peripheral nerve blocks (at least with some of the blocks). Meaningful clinical improvements with other developments remains uncertain. The assessment of the relationships between analyzed advancements over the past 30 years and earlier similar developments indicated that their evolution was usually incremental. The most original advancement was found to be the introduction of the transversus abdominis plane block., Conclusion: The assessment of recent advances in regional/local anesthesia, based on the evaluation of related meta-analyses, revealed only incremental progress with mostly marginal benefits. The progress was the most notable with ultrasound guidance for some of peripheral nerve blocks.

Background: Despite a growing body of literature illustrating the benefits of regional anaesthesia in shoulder arthroscopy, data on actual use of the technique in the United States is lacking. This study analyses epidemiologic data to describe current trends in anaesthetic practice for these procedures in the United States and highlights key associations with patient and provider demographic variables that may provide further insight., Methods: We analysed the large database from the National Anesthesia Clinical Outcomes Registry of the Anesthesia Quality Institute. Of the 26,568,734 records available and after applying our exclusion criteria, we identified 169,878 shoulder arthroscopies performed from 2010 to 2014. The cases concerned all types of arthroscopic surgical procedures performed regardless of pathology (e.g. arthritis, instability, rotator cuff tears) These cases were sorted into three anaesthetic types consisting of general anaesthesia alone (GA, 62 %), general plus regional anaesthesia (GA+RA, 36 %) and RA alone (RA, 2 %)., Results: RA alone was more highly associated with board-certified anaesthesiologists practicing at university hospitals, older patients, patients with higher American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) classification and shorter procedures. RA is rarely used as the primary anaesthetic for these procedures across the country, while there is a steadily growing rate of GA+RA combination anaesthetics., Conclusions: Numerous advantages have been reported for utilizing RA and avoiding GA. The low rate at which RA is used as the sole anesthetic may represent room for improvement nationwide. GA+RA combination technique quickly became the predominant anaesthetic choice for shoulder arthroscopy during the five years of this analysis., Level of Evidence: III.

Purpose: To present the history of changes in academic interest in local anesthetics quantitatively., Methods: The changes in publication-based academic interest in local anesthetics were assessed using information from the database of PubMed. The assessment was mostly based on the following indices: general popularity index (GPI), representing the proportion of articles on a drug relative to all articles in the field of regional anesthesia, and specific popularity index (SPI), representing the proportion of articles on a drug relative to all articles in one of the four forms of regional anesthesia: local anesthesia, spinal anesthesia, epidural anesthesia, and peripheral nerve blocks., Results: The most important general feature of the changes in publication-based academic interest in local anesthetics for the past 50 years was the concentration of this interest on a very limited number of drugs. By 2010-2014, only three anesthetics demonstrated the GPI value above 4.0: bupivacaine (10.1), lidocaine (10.0), and ropivacaine (4.6). All other local anesthetics had GPI declining mostly to less than 1.0 (2010-2014). The rate of change in publication-based academic interest was very slow in both its increase and decline. The most profound change in publication-based academic interests was caused by the introduction of bupivacaine. During a 20-year period (from 1965-1969 to 1985-1989), bupivacaine's GPI increased from 1.3 to 12.9., Conclusion: A slowly developing concentration of publication-based academic interest on a very limited number of local anesthetics was the dominant feature related to this class of anesthetic agents., (Copyright © 2016 Anesthesia History Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The number of new anesthetics approved by the USA FDA over the past 30 years (1985-2014) is much smaller than during the preceding 30 years (1955-1984): four versus ten. Investigational anesthetics clinically tested since 1990 have been almost exclusively intravenous anesthetics (nine compounds), with only one now approved by the FDA. All nine agents represent modifications of anesthetics introduced approximately 40-50 years ago; none demonstrates a truly novel mechanism of action. The apparent drought of novel anesthetics is difficult to explain. While there may be multiple reasons, we believe that one is especially noteworthy: the dramatic improvement in anesthesia safety owing to the context in which anesthetics are administered, effectively decreasing the pressure to develop new drugs with better safety margins., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: We used intraoperative neuromonitoring to define the stages of the Latarjet procedure during which the nerves are at greatest risk., Methods: Thirty-four patients with a mean age of 28.4 years were included. The Latarjet procedure was divided into 9 defined stages. Bilateral median and ulnar somatosensory evoked responses and transcranial motor evoked potentials from all arm myotomes were continuously monitored. A "nerve alert" was defined as averaged 50% amplitude attenuation or 10% latency prolongation of ipsilateral somatosensory evoked responses and transcranial motor evoked potentials. For each nerve alert, the surgeon altered retractor placement, and if there was no response to this, the position of the operative extremity was then changed., Results: Of 34 patients, 26 (76.5%) had 45 separate nerve alert episodes. The most common stages of the procedure for a nerve alert to occur were glenoid exposure and graft insertion. The axillary nerve was involved in 35 alerts; the musculocutaneous nerve, in 22. Of the 34 patients, 7 (20.6%) had a clinically detectable nerve deficit postoperatively, all correlated with an intraoperative nerve alert. All cases involved the axillary nerve, and all resolved completely from 28 to 165 days postoperatively. Prior surgery and body mass index were not predictive of a neurologic deficit postoperatively. However, total operative time (P = .042) and duration of the stage of the procedure in which the concordant nerve alert occurred (P = .010) were statistically significant predictors of a postoperative nerve deficit., Conclusions: The nerves, in particular the axillary and musculocutaneous nerves, are at risk during the Latarjet procedure, especially during glenoid exposure and graft insertion., (Copyright © 2014 Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery Board of Trustees. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Nerve blocks with local anesthetics have been used in the diagnosis and treatment of neuralgias. Usually these blocks were administered in combination with corticosteroids and other drugs that can be effective by themselves. Although lasting benefits from nerve blocks in neuralgias have long been described, definitive evidence is lacking. We had the following objectives in this systematic review: to analyze the evidence behind the practice of peripheral nerve blockade with local anesthetics in patients with neuralgias and radicular pain syndromes; to assess the duration of pain relief after conduction block resolution; and to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment of these syndromes with a series of blocks., Methods: We searched Medline, Embase, narrative reviews, and book chapters. Only articles published in English were collected. The list of 3347 identified articles was reduced to 39 articles that were read entirely, 12 of which met inclusion criteria., Results: Twelve included articles were analyzed. Each can be classified as a single case report or case series; there were no controlled studies among them. Nine reports assessed a single block outcome; all recorded pain relief beyond the duration of conduction blockade. Those 9 reports represented a total of 69 patients, 30 of whom had complete pain relief and 10 had relief ≥50%. Seven reports with the assessment of continuous pain ≥1 week after a single block reported complete or profound pain relief in 11 of 17 patients. All 3 reports with the assessment of a series of blocks in a large number of patients (total of 270) reported overall positive results., Conclusion: Because all reviewed articles were only single case reports or case series, no reliable conclusion could be drawn concerning the effectiveness of nerve blocks with local anesthetics in neuralgia. However, 2 features of the analyzed reports-the large magnitude of the effect and the high consistency of the reported outcome-indicate that future research efforts are warranted.