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The success of the galling insects sharing the same microhabitat depends both on the synchrony of their life cycles with the leaf flushing of the super-host plant and to the asynchrony among their life cycles. The asynchrony of the multivoltine life cycles of Lopesia spp. (Diptera—Cecidomyiidae) is favored by the constant leaf flushing in M. gemmulata, and favors the non-overlapping of gall induction periods. Peculiarly, the univoltine life cycle of the galling Lepidoptera on its stem galls is synchronized to the availability of mature host leaves during the rainy season, which is important for the water potential in host stem branches. The abundance of the Lopesia gall morphotypes follow the phenology of M. gemmulata, which obeys the seasonal pattern of water availability in the neotropical savanna climate.

Galling insects manipulate host plant tissues for their own benefit. Because of feeding activity of the gall insects, both structural and metabolic changes occur in the host plant, leading to the formation of an abnormal growth of new organ (the gall). Galls induced by Palaeomystella oligophaga (Lepidoptera) on Macairea radula (Melastomataceae) depend on the constant larval feeding stimulus for establishment and development. The gall consists of two tissue compartments – the storage and nutritive tissues. These two gall tissues were investigated here in terms of the levels of oxidative stress and of a possible differential chemical investment. In addition, we investigated the relationship between gall coloration and the concentration of primary metabolites. Our results supported a differential investment of chemical compounds in the M. radula compartments, with higher concentrations of polysaccharides, malondialdehyde, and phenolic compounds in the storage tissue, and higher total soluble sugar concentrations in the nutritive tissue. Regarding gall colour, conflicting results were observed in the present gall system. Water-soluble polysaccharides were detected at higher concentrations in red galls than in green galls. As a water-soluble polysaccharide, pectin seems to be related to increased anthocyanin stability, a process that might occur in galls, leading to red coloration.

The gall structure is built from redifferentiation of host plant tissues, changing the cell wall proprieties and associated functions. Because of the oxidative stress imposed by the galling insect on the plant tissues, some phenotypic traits associated with cell wall metabolism may be suppressed during gall development. Using an immunocytochemical approach we investigated the pectin and glycoprotein composition of the cell walls during non-galled leaf development and galls induced on Aspidosperma tomentosum (Apocynaceae). Embedding in historesin was used for anatomical characterization, as well as for immunocytochemical analyses. The samples were probed with the primary monoclonal antibodies JIM5, JIM7, LM1, LM2, LM5 and LM6. The gall develops especially from cell hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the spongy and palisade parenchyma, which determine its shape. Epitopes of β-D-galactan and α-L-arabinan in the galls were totally suppressed or less expressed. The increased labeling of homogalacturonan epitopes, especially in senescent galls, is a clear indicator that pectin methylesterase activity is maintained despite oxidative stresses imposed by the galling insect. Arabinogalactan proteins were not detected in any non-galled leaf or gall stages. The galling insect deeply changed the structure and deposition pattern of the cell wall, promoting new functionalities in the gall tissue compartments.

Several studies have suggested reasons why galls have conspicuous colours, but none of the ideas have been confirmed. However, what if the vibrant colours of some galls are explained simply by the effect of light exposure? This may lead to anthocyanin accumulation, functioning as a defence mechanism against the effects of high light. We studied the globoid galls induced by Cecidomyiidae (Diptera) on Qualea parviflora (Vochysiaceae), relating anthocyanin accumulation and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters to light incidence in abaxial and adaxial galls. We also tested if the anthocyanin accumulation patterns apply to another Cecidomyiidae-induced gall morphotype (intralaminar) within the same plant. Adaxial galls are exposed to higher incident light, with more anthocyanin accumulation and therefore red coloration. In galls from angled leaves, the greater the angle of the leaf, the higher the difference between anthocyanins on the sun and shade sides of galls. Photosynthetic pigment concentrations did not differ between abaxial and adaxial galls. However, we found higher (Fm ' - F')/Fm ' and Fv /Fm in the abaxial galls. Conversely, NPQ and Rfd were higher in adaxial galls. Finally, the pattern of anthocyanin accumulation was not found in the intralaminar gall. Anthocyanin accumulation in galls functions as a photoprotective strategy, maintaining tissue vitality in regions exposed to high light conditions. However, this mechanism may vary even among galls within the same host, indicating idiosyncrasy when it comes to coloration in galls. To date, this is the first study to demonstrate quantitatively why the galls of a specific species may be coloured: the variation in light regimes creates differential anthocyanin accumulation, influencing coloration.

The galling insect Bystracoccus mataybae (Eriococcidae) induces green and intralaminar galls on leaflets of Matayba guianensis (Sapindaceae), and promotes a high oxidative stress in host plant tissues. This biotic stress is assumed by the histochemical detection of hydrogen peroxide, a reactive oxygen species (ROS), whose production alters gall physiology. Thus, we hypothesize that high levels of nutrients are accumulated during gall development in response to a local maintenance of photosynthesis and to the galling insect activity. Moreover, the maintenance of low levels of photosynthesis may guarantee O2 production and CO2 consumption, as well as may avoid hypoxia and hypercarbia in gall tissues. To access the photosynthesis performance, the distribution of chlorophyllous tissues and the photochemical and carboxylation rates in gall tissues were analyzed. In addition, histochemical tests for hydrogen peroxide and phenolic derivatives were performed to confirm the biotic stress, and set the possible sites where stress dissipation occurs. The contents of sugars and nitrogen were evaluated to quantify the gall sink. Currently, we assume that the homeostasis in gall tissues is ruptured by the oxidative stress promoted by the galling insect activity. Thus, to supply the demands of gall metabolism, the levels of water-soluble polysaccharides and starch increase in gall tissues. The low values of maximum quantum efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) indicate a low photosynthetic performance in gall tissues. In addition, the decrease of maximum PSII quantum yield, (F’m-F’)/F’m, and Rfd (instantaneous fluorescence decline ratio in light, to measure tissue vitality) demonstrate that the tissues of B. mataybae galls are more susceptible to damage caused by stressors than the non-galled tissues. Thus, the high oxidative stress in gall developmental sites is dissipated not only by the accumulation of phenolic derivatives in the protoplast, but also of lignins in the walls of neoformed sclereids.

Galls formed by root-knot nematodes have been studied in several cultivated species focusing on understanding the intimate relationship between parasite and the host plant. Species of Meloidogyne induce the development of a feeding site in the cortex or vascular cylinder of the host plant and are totally dependent on this site formation to complete their life cycle. Therefore, we focused on anatomical, cytological and histochemical changes during the establishment and development of galls and giant cells induced by Meloidogyne javanica in the roots of Glycine max. Seeds of soybean (susceptible cultivar M8372 IPRO) were sown in trays with coconut fibre substrate and the seedlings were removed ten days after the seeds emerged for nematode inoculation. The roots from inoculated and non-inoculated (control) were sampled at different stages of development until 55 days after inoculation. Histological, cytological, histochemical analysis were performed in light and electron microscopy in non-galled tissue and galls induced by M. javanica. The galls showed different shapes and abundance in the roots inoculated by M. javanica. The induction of galls occurs by hypertrophy of the root cortex shortly after the initial infection process. Giant cells were formed 18 days after nematode inoculation. These giant or nourishing cells are multinucleated, and have a dense cytoplasm, a thick wall with invaginations, many mitochondria and small vacuoles. The anatomical sections indicated a disorganisation of the cells of the cortex and vascular cylinder in relation to the control root.