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© Copyright 2022. Sociedad Meteorológica Estadounidense (AMS). Para obtener permiso para reutilizar cualquier parte de este Trabajo, comuníquese con permisos@ametsoc. org . Cualquier uso del material en este Trabajo que se determine como "uso justo" según la Sección 107 de la Ley de derechos de autor de EE. UU. (17 Código de EE. UU. § 107) o que cumpla las condiciones especificadas en la Sección 108 de la Ley de derechos de autor de EE. ) no requiere el permiso de la AMS. La republicación, la reproducción sistemática, la publicación en forma electrónica, como en un sitio web o en una base de datos de búsqueda, u otros usos de este material, excepto los exentos de la declaración anterior, requieren un permiso por escrito o una licencia de la AMS. Todas las publicaciones periódicas y monográficas de AMS están registradas en el Centro de Autorización de Derechos de Autor (https://www.copyright.com ). Se proporcionan detalles adicionales en la declaración de política de derechos de autor de AMS, disponible en el sitio web de AMS ( https://www.ametsoc.org/PUBSCopyrightPolicy ) ., In 2021, both social and economic activities began to return towards the levels preceding the COVID-19 pandemic for some parts of the globe, with others still experiencing restrictions. Meanwhile, the climate has continued to respond to the ongoing increase in greenhouse gases and resulting warming. La Niña, a phenomenon which tends to depress global temperatures while changing rainfall patterns in many regions, prevailed for all but two months of the year. Despite this, 2021 was one of the six-warmest years on record as measured by global mean surface temperature with an anomaly of between +0.21° and +0.28°C above the 1991–2020 climatology., Lake surface water temperatures from satellite data have been generated within the GloboLakes project funded by the UK National Environment Research Council (NE/J023345/2), with extensions funded by the EU Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) programme...

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) measurements from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI), Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite (OMPS), and TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) satellite spectrometers were used to update and extend the previously developed global catalogue of large SO2 emission sources. This version 2 of the global catalogue covers the period of 2005–2021 and includes a total of 759 continuously emitting point sources releasing from about 10 kt yr−1 to more than 4000 kt yr−1 of SO2, that have been identified and grouped by country and primary source origin: volcanoes (106 sources); power plants (477); smelters (74); and sources related to the oil and gas industry (102). There are several major improvements compared to the original catalogue: it combines emissions estimates from three satellite instruments instead of just OMI, uses a new version 2 of the OMI and OMPS SO2 dataset, and updated consistent site-specific air mass factors (AMFs) are used to calculate SO2 vertical column densities (VCDs). The newest TROPOMI SO2 data processed with the Covariance-Based Retrieval Algorithm (COBRA), used in the catalogue, can detect sources with emissions as low as 8 kt yr−1 (in 2018–2021) compared to the 30 kt yr−1 limit for OMI. In general, there is an overall agreement within ±12 % in total emissions estimated from the three satellite instruments for large regions. For individual emission sources, the spread is larger: the annual emissions estimated from OMI and TROPOMI agree within ±13 % in 50 % of cases and within ±28 % in 90 % of cases. The version 2 catalogue emissions were calculated as a weighted average of emission estimates from the three satellite instruments using an inverse-variance weighting method. OMI, OMPS, and TROPOMI data contribute 7 %, 5 %, and 88 % to the average, respectively, for small ( kt yr−1) sources and 33 %, 20 %, and 47 %, respectively, for large (>300 kt yr−1) sources. The catalogue data show an approximate 50 % decline in global SO2 emissions between 2005 and 2021, although emissions were relatively stable during the last 3 years. The version 2 of the global catalogue has been posted at the NASA global SO2 monitoring website (https://doi.org/10.5067/MEASURES/SO2/DATA406, Fioletov et al., 2022).

Global Climate is one chapter from the State of the Climate in 2019 annual report and is avail- able from https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-20-0104.1 Compiled by NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information, State of the Climate in 2019 is based on contributions from scien- tists from around the world. It provides a detailed update on global climate indicators, notable weather events, and other data collected by environmental monitoring stations and instru- ments located on land, water, ice, and in space. The full report is available from https://doi.org/10.1175/2020BAMSStateoftheClimate.1.

We report on updated trends using different merged zonal mean total ozone datasets from satellite and ground-based observations for the period from 1979 to 2020. This work is an update of the trends reported in Weber et al. (2018) using the same datasets up to 2016. Merged datasets used in this study include NASA MOD v8.7 and NOAA Cohesive Data (COH) v8.6, both based on data from the series of Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SBUV), SBUV-2, and Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite (OMPS) satellite instruments (1978–present), as well as the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME)-type Total Ozone – Essential Climate Variable (GTO-ECV) and GOME-SCIAMACHY-GOME-2 (GSG) merged datasets (both 1995–present), mainly comprising satellite data from GOME, SCIAMACHY, OMI, GOME-2A, GOME-2B, and TROPOMI. The fifth dataset consists of the annual mean zonal mean data from ground-based measurements collected at the World Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation Data Centre (WOUDC). Trends were determined by applying a multiple linear regression (MLR) to annual mean zonal mean data. The addition of 4 more years consolidated the fact that total ozone is indeed slowly recovering in both hemispheres as a result of phasing out ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) as mandated by the Montreal Protocol. The near-global (60∘ S–60∘ N) ODS-related ozone trend of the median of all datasets after 1995 was 0.4 ± 0.2 (2σ) %/decade, which is roughly a third of the decreasing rate of 1.5 ± 0.6 %/decade from 1978 until 1995. The ratio of decline and increase is nearly identical to that of the EESC (equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine or stratospheric halogen) change rates before and after 1995, confirming the success of the Montreal Protocol. The observed total ozone time series are also in very good agreement with the median of 17 chemistry climate models from CCMI-1 (Chemistry-Climate Model Initiative Phase 1) with current ODS and GHG (greenhouse gas) scenarios (REF-C2 scenario). The positive ODS-related trends in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) after 1995 are only obtained with a sufficient number of terms in the MLR accounting properly for dynamical ozone changes (Brewer–Dobson circulation, Arctic Oscillation (AO), and Antarctic Oscillation (AAO)). A standard MLR (limited to solar, Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO), volcanic, and El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)) leads to zero trends, showing that the small positive ODS-related trends have been balanced by negative trend contributions from atmospheric dynamics, resulting in nearly constant total ozone levels since 2000.

Vitamin D status was assessed in 19–79 year old whites (8351 participants of European ancestry) and non-whites (1840 participants encompassing allother ancestries) from cycles 1 to 3 (years 2007–2013) of the Canadian Health Measures Survey. Status was assessed using the U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] cut point values of 30 and 40 nmol/L. Overall, median 25(OH)D concentrations were significantly higher in whites [58.9 (28.6, 100.1) nmol/L; 5th and 95th percentile] compared with non-whites [43.5 (19.0, 83.2); P < 0.001]. Values were higher in females [58.5 (27.5, 101.3) nmol/L] when compared with males[53.5 (24.2, 92.7) nmol/L] and increased with age. Non-whites were more likely to have 25(OH)D values below IOM established cut points for optimum bone health with 20.1 (16.0, 24.2) and 42.2% (36.8, 47.7) of non-whites having serum 25(OH)D concentrations

Vertical profiles of aerosols, NO2, and SO2 were retrieved from Multi-Axis Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (MAX-DOAS) measurements at a field site in northern Alberta, Canada, during August and September 2013. The site is approximately 16 km north of two mining operations that are major sources of industrial pollution in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region. Pollution conditions during the study ranged from atmospheric background conditions to heavily polluted with elevated plumes, according to meteorology. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of the aerosol and trace gas retrievals through comparison with data from a suite of other instruments. Comparisons of AODs from MAX-DOAS aerosol retrievals, lidar vertical profiles of aerosol extinction, and AERONET sun photometer indicate good performance by the MAX-DOAS retrievals. These comparisons and modelling of the lidar S-ratio highlight the need for accurate knowledge of the temporal variation in the S-ratio when comparing MAX-DOAS and lidar data. Comparisons of MAX-DOAS NO2 and SO2 retrievals to Pandora spectral sun photometer VCDs and Active-DOAS mixing ratios indicate good performance of the retrievals except when vertical profiles of pollutants within the boundary layer varied rapidly, temporally and spatially. Near-surface retrievals tended to overestimate Active-DOAS mixing ratios. The MAX-DOAS observed elevated pollution plumes not observed by the Active-DOAS, highlighting one of the instrument's main advantages. Aircraft measurements of SO2 were used to validate retrieved vertical profiles of SO2. Advantages of the MAX-DOAS instrument include increasing sensitivity towards the surface and the ability to simultaneously retrieve vertical profiles of aerosols and trace gases without requiring additional parameters such as the S-ratio. This complex dataset provided a rare opportunity to evaluate the performance of the MAX-DOAS retrievals under varying atmospheric conditions.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) measurements from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) satellite sensor have been used to detect emissions from large point sources. Emissions from over 400 sources have been quantified individually based on OMI observations, accounting for about a half of total reported anthropogenic SO2 emissions. Here we report a newly developed emission inventory, OMI-HTAP, by combining these OMI-based emission estimates and the conventional bottom-up inventory, HTAP, for smaller sources that OMI is not able to detect. OMI-HTAP includes emissions from OMI-detected sources that are not captured in previous leading bottom-up inventories, enabling more accurate emission estimates for regions with such missing sources. OMI-HTAP SO2 emissions estimates for Persian Gulf, Mexico, and Russia are 59 %, 65 %, and 56 % higher than HTAP estimates, respectively, in year 2010. We have evaluated the OMI-HTAP inventory by performing simulations with the Goddard Earth Observing System version 5 (GEOS-5) model. The GEOS-5 simulated SO2 concentrations driven by both HTAP and OMI-HTAP were compared against in situ measurements. We focus the validation on year 2010 for which HTAP is most valid and a relatively large number of in situ measurements are available. Results show that the OMI-HTAP inventory improves the model agreement with observations, in particular over the US, with the normalized mean bias decreasing from 0.41 (HTAP) to −0.03 (OMI-HTAP) for year 2010. Additionally, our approach offers the possibility of rapid updates to emissions from large point sources that can be detected by satellites. Simulations with the OMI-HTAP inventory capture the worldwide major trends of large anthropogenic SO2 emissions that are observed with OMI. For example, correlation coefficients of the observed and modelled surface SO2 in 2014 increase from 0.16 (HTAP) to 0.59 (OMI-HTAP) and the normalized mean bias dropped from 0.29 (HTAP) to 0.05 (OMI-HTAP), when we updated 2010 HTAP emissions with 2014 OMI-HTAP emissions in the model. Our methodology applied to OMI-HTAP can also be used to merge improved satellite-derived estimates with other multi-year bottom-up inventories, which may further improve the accuracy of the emission trends.

We report on updated trends using different merged datasets from satellite and groundbased observations for the time period 1979 until 2016. Trends were determined by application of a multiple linear regression (MLR) to annual mean zonal mean data. Merged datasets used are NASA MOD V8.6 and NOAA MERGE V8.6, both based upon data from the series of SBUV and SBUV-2 satellite instruments (1978–present) and the GTO (GOME-type Total Ozone) and GSG (GOME-SCIAMACHY-GOME2) merged datasets (1995–present) that are mainly composed of satellite data from GOME, SCIAMACHY, and GOME-2A. The fifth dataset are the monthly mean zonal mean data from ground data collected at WOUDC (World Ozone and UV Data Center). The addition of four more years of data since the last WMO Ozone Assessment (2013–2016) show that for most datasets and regions the trends since the stratospheric halogens reached maximum (~ 1996 globally and ~ 2000 in polar regions) are mostly not significantly different from zero. However, for some latitudes, in particular the southern hemisphere extratropics and northern hemisphere subtropics, several datasets show small positive trends of slightly below +1 %/decade that are barely statistically significant at the 2σ uncertainty level. In the tropics only two datasets show significant trends of +0.5 to +0.8 %/decade}, while the other show near zero trends. Positive trends since 2000 are observed over Antarctic in September, but near zero trends in October as well as in March over the Arctic. Since uncertainties due to possible drifts between the datasets as well as from the merging procedure used in the satellite datasets or due to the low sampling of ground data are not accounted for, the retrieved trends can be only considered being at the brink of becoming significant, but there are indications that we are about to emerge into the expected recovery phase. Nevertheless, the recent trends are still considerably masked by the observed large year-to-year variability in total ozone.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) measurements from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) satellite sensor processed with the new Principal Component Analysis (PCA) algorithm were used to detect large point emission sources or clusters of sources. The total of 491 continuously emitting point sources releasing from about 30 kt yr−1 to more than 4000 kt yr−1 of SO2 per year have been identified and grouped by country and by primary source origin: volcanoes (76 sources); power plants (297); smelters (53); and sources related to the oil and gas industry (65). The sources were identified using different methods, including through OMI measurements themselves applied to a new emissions detection algorithm, and their evolution during the 2005–2014 period was traced by estimating annual emissions from each source. For volcanic sources, the study focused on continuous degassing, and emissions from explosive eruptions were excluded. Emissions from degassing volcanic sources were measured, many for the first time, and collectively they account for about 30 % of total SO2 emissions estimated from OMI measurements, but that fraction has increased in recent years given that cumulative global emissions from power plants and smelters are declining while emissions from oil and gas industry remained nearly constant. Anthropogenic emissions from the USA declined by 80 % over the 2005–2014 period as did emissions from western and central Europe, whereas emissions from India nearly doubled, and emissions from other large SO2-emitting regions (South Africa, Russia, Mexico, and the Middle East) remained fairly constant. In total, OMI-based estimates account for about a half of total reported anthropogenic SO2 emissions; the remaining half is likely related to sources emitting less than 30 kt yr−1 and not detected by OMI.

Vertical column densities (VCDs) of SO2 retrieved by a Pandora spectral sunphotometer at Fort McKay, Alberta, Canada, from 2013–2015 were analysed. The Fort McKay site is located in the Canadian oil sands region approximately 20 km north of two major SO2 sources (upgraders) with total emission of about 45 kt yr−1. Elevated SO2 VCD values were frequently recorded by the instrument with the highest values of about 9 DU (1 DU = 2.69•1016 molecules•cm−2). Comparisons with co-located in-situ measurements demonstrated that there was a very good correlation between VCDs and surface concentrations in some cases, while in the others elevated VCDs did not correspond to high surface concentrations suggesting the plume was above the ground. Elevated VCDs and surface concentrations were observed when the wind direction was from south to southeast, i.e. from the direction of the two local SO2 sources. The statistical error of the Pandora SO2 VCDs from the spectral fitting uncertainty is under 0.05 DU for optimal observation conditions. The precision of the SO2 measurements, estimated from parallel measurements by two Pandora instruments at Toronto, is 0.17 DU. The total uncertainty of Pandora SO2 VCD, estimated using measurements when the wind direction was away from the sources, is under 0.26 DU (1-σ). Comparisons with integrated SO2 profiles from concurrent aircraft measurements support these estimates.