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Recent evidence suggests that cardiovascular fitness and gross motor skill performance are related to neurocognitive functioning by influencing brain structure and functioning. This study investigates the role of resting-state networks (RSNs) in the relation of cardiovascular fitness and gross motor skills with neurocognitive functioning in healthy 8- to 11-year-old children (n = 90, 45 girls, 10% migration background). Cardiovascular fitness and gross motor skills were related to brain activity in RSNs. Furthermore, brain activity in RSNs mediated the relation of both cardiovascular fitness (Frontoparietal network and Somatomotor network) and gross motor skills (Somatomotor network) with neurocognitive functioning. The results indicate that brain functioning may contribute to the relation between both cardiovascular fitness and gross motor skills with neurocognitive functioning.

Previous research in children has shown that higher cardiovascular fitness is related to better executive functioning. However, the available literature is hampered by methodological limitations. The present study investigates the relationship between cardiovascular fitness and executive functioning in a large sample of healthy children (N = 814). Cardiovascular fitness was assessed with estimated VO2Max from 20 m Shuttle Run Test performance. Executive functioning was assessed using a set of computerized neurocognitive tasks aimed at executive functions (working memory, motor inhibition, interference control) and lower-level neurocognitive functions (information processing and attention). Dependent measures derived from the neurocognitive tests were subjected to principal component analysis. Mixed model analyses tested the relation between cardiovascular fitness and neurocognitive functioning components. Results showed that children with higher cardiovascular fitness performed better on the neurocognitive function components Information Processing and Control, Visuospatial Working Memory and Attention Efficiency. The following measures contained in these components contributed to the observed relations: information processing measures, visuospatial working memory, and speed of alerting attention. No relationship was found between cardiovascular fitness and the other components: Verbal Working Memory, Attention Accuracy, and Interference Control. The present study suggests that there is a relationship between cardiovascular fitness and a specific set of executive functions and lower level neurocognitive functions. These findings highlight the importance of cardiovascular fitness for the overall health of school-aged children.

In previous studies, the effects of physically active academic lessons on academic achievement have been shown. Less is known about follow-up effects and the effects for disadvantaged groups. The first aim of this study was to examine 7-9 months follow-up effects of a physically active academic intervention on academic achievement. The second aim was to examine the effects of the 2-year intervention for a subgroup of socially disadvantaged children. A cluster-randomized controlled trial with 499 children (113 socially disadvantaged children) from second- and third-grade classes was conducted. Children's academic achievement was measured before the intervention started, after the first and second intervention year, and 7-9 months after the intervention ended. At the 7-9 months follow-up, the intervention group showed significantly greater gains in math performance in comparison with the control group. No significant follow-up effects were found on language performance. Furthermore, the lessons significantly improved the math and spelling performance of socially disadvantaged children after two intervention years. These children did not benefit more from the lessons than other children. In conclusion, effects of physically active academic lessons on math achievement persist when the lessons are no longer taught, and the lessons are an innovative way to improve the academic achievement of socially disadvantaged children. The findings suggest that physically active academic lessons should be considered for inclusion in school curriculums in order to improve the academic achievement of all children. Trial Registration: This study is registered at www.isrctn.com (No. ISRCTN17021806).

Background: Preventing overweight and improving physical fitness in primary school children is a worldwide challenge, and physically active intervention programs usually come with the cost of academic instruction time. This study aimed to investigate effects of physically active academic lessons on body mass index (BMI) and physical fitness in primary school children. Methods: Dutch children attending second- or third-grade class from 12 primary schools (N = 376; 8.1 ± 0.7 years) were randomly assigned to a 22-week intervention program or to the control group. In addition to measuring BMI before and after the intervention, physical fitness was measured with 5 items of the Eurofit test battery, measuring cardiovascular and muscular fitness. Results: Multilevel analysis showed a significant interaction effect between condition (intervention vs control) and grade (B = -0.47; p < 0.05). For third-grade children, BMI of the intervention group did not change significantly during the intervention period, whereas a significant increase was found in the control group. No significant main or interaction effects were found for cardiovascular or muscular fitness. Conclusions: The current physically active academic lessons had positive effects on BMI in third-grade children, but had no effects on cardiovascular and muscular fitness.

The authors performed a clustered randomized controlled trial to investigate the effects of an aerobic and a cognitively demanding exercise intervention on executive functions in primary-school-age children compared with the regular physical education program (N = 856). They hypothesized that both exercise interventions would facilitate executive functioning, with stronger effects for the cognitively demanding exercise group. The interventions were provided four times per week for 14 weeks. Linear mixed models were conducted on posttest neurocognitive function measures with baseline level as covariate. No differences were found between the exercise interventions and the control group for any of the measures. Independently of group, dose of moderate to vigorous physical activity was positively related to verbal working memory and attention abilities. This study showed that physical exercise interventions did not enhance executive functioning in children. Exposure to moderate to vigorous physical activity is a crucial aspect of the relationship between physical activity and executive functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to examine motor performance in deaf elementary school children and its association with sports participation. The population studied included 42 deaf children whose hearing loss ranged from 80 to 120 dB. Their motor skills were assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, and a questionnaire was used to determine their active involvement in organized sports. The deaf children had significantly more borderline and definite motor problems than the normative sample: 62% (manual dexterity), 52% (ball skills), and 45% (balance skills). Participation in organized sports was reported by 43% of the children; these children showed better performance on ball skills and dynamic balance. This study demonstrates the importance of improving deaf children's motor skill performance, which might contribute positively to their sports participation. (Contains 4 tables.)

A heterogeneous sample of 137 school-aged children with learning disabilities (IQ greater than 80) attending special needs schools was examined on the "Movement Assessment Battery for Children" (MABC). The results show that compared to the available norm scores, 52.6% of the children tested performed below the 15th percentile on manual dexterity, 40.9% on ball skills, and 33.7% on balance skills. Furthermore, after controlling for IQ, significant small to moderate partial correlations were found between spelling and mathematics and the MABC total score, as well as small to moderate correlations between mathematics and balance, between reading and ball skills, and between spelling and manual dexterity. The present findings are compared with previously reported results obtained in more homogenous groups, and based on the resultant relationships between academic performance and motor development, recommendations for future motor intervention studies are made. (Contains 4 tables.)

Aim: This study compared the gross motor skills of school-age children (mean age 7y 8mo, range 6-9y) with developmental speech and language disorders (DSLDs; n = 105; 76 males, 29 females) and typically developing children (n = 105; 76 males, 29 females). The relationship between the performance parameters and the children's age was investigated as well as the role of the type of DSLD. Method: The children with DSLDs were classified by their schools' speech and language therapists into three subgroups: children with speech disorders (n = 16), those with language disorders (n = 41), or those with both (n = 48). They were tested with the Test of Gross Motor Development, 2nd edition. Results: Compared with their typically developing peers, all three DSLD subgroups scored lower on the locomotor (all p values less than 0.001) and object control sub tests (all p values less than 0.001). Significant performance differences were found between the three types of DSLD (all p values less than 0.01) where the children with language disorders only performed better. Older children performed better than the younger ones (p[subscript locomotor] = 0.029, p[subscript object control] less than 0.001), but the magnitude of differences between the children with DSLDs and their peers did not change with increasing age. Interpretation: Children with DSLDs have poor gross motor skills. Although the performance of children with DSLDs improves with increasing age, it lags behind that of typically developing children. The present results emphasize the importance of early diagnosis and intervention for children with motor deficits.

This study compares the motor skills and physical fitness of school-age children (6-12 years) with visual impairments (VI; n = 60) and sighted children (n = 60). The relationships between the performance parameters and the children's body composition are investigated as well as the role of the severity of the impairment. The degree of VI did not differentially affect the outcomes. Compared to their sighted peers, the children with VI scored lower on the locomotor and object control skills as assessed with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2, and the physical fitness (Eurofit) parameters of plate tapping, the standing broad jump, the modified 5 x 10-m shuttle run, and 20-m multistage shuttle run (20-MST). Their body mass and body fat indexes were inversely correlated with the standing broad jump and the 20-MST, but positively correlated with handgrip strength. Moreover, significant inverse correlations were found between their locomotor and object control skills on the one hand and plate tapping and the 5 x 10-m shuttle run on the other hand. Given the relatively high proportion (25%) of overweight/obese children within the VI sample, educators are recommended to promote health-related activities and help enhance motor skills in this population. (Contains 3 tables.)

This study examines the psychometric properties of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) in children with visual impairments (VI). Seventy-five children aged between 6 and 12 years with VI completed the TGMD-2 and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Movement ABC). The internal consistency of the TGMD-2 was found to be high (alpha = 0.71-0.72) and the interrater, intrarater, and test-retest reliability acceptable (ICCs ranging from 0.82 to 0.95). The results of the factor analysis supported internal test structure and significant age and sex effects were observed. Finally, the scores on the object control subtest of the TGMD-2 and the ball skills subtest of the Movement ABC correlated moderately to high (r = 0.45 to r = 0.80). Based on the current results, it is concluded that the TGMD-2 is an appropriate tool to assess the gross motor skills of primary-school-age children with VI. (Contains 3 tables and 4 figures.)

The purpose of this study was to gain insight into the academic achievements of 200 talented athletes in 1992/1993 and 200 in 2006/2007, aged 14-16 years. When compared with the national average, the athletes in 2006/2007 attended pre-university classes more often (X[superscript 2] = 57.001, p less than 0.05). Of the 2006/2007 athletes, a higher percentage participated in pre-university programs compared with that of athletes in 1992/1993 (X[superscript 2] (1, n = 400) = 32.003, p less than 0.05), whereas the national averages showed stability (X[superscript 2] = 0.325, p greater than 0.05). Investigating self-regulation appears relevant, as talented athletes may have developed a high sense of self-regulation in sports, which may enable them to optimally profit from their self-regulatory skills in their academics. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

This article reviews studies on variables that are related to the motor skill performance of children and adolescents with visual impairments (VI). Three major groups of variables are considered (child, environmental, and task). Thirty-nine studies are included in this review, 26 of which examined the effects of child, environmental, and/or task variable(s) on motor skill performance and 13 of which reported suggestions by experts about variables related to performance. Weak evidence was found for three relationships: (a) between the degree of VI and dynamic balance and manual dexterity, (b) between amblyopia/strabismus and fine motor skills, and (c) between movement interventions and motor skill performance. In addition, weak evidence was found to refute a relationship between gender and static balance. Further research with reliable and valid measurement instruments and theoretically funded research emphasizing the interaction between a wide range of variables is needed, with specific attention to environmental and task variables. (Contains 3 tables.)

Gross motor skill performance of children with visual impairments and its association with the degree of visual impairment and sports participation was examined. Twenty children with visual impairments (M age = 9.2 years, SD = 1.5) and 100 sighted children (M age = 9.1 years, SD = 1.5) from mainstream schools participated. The results showed that children with visual impairments had significantly lower object control but not locomotor skill scores than the sighted children. No significant differences were found between children with a moderate and severe visual impairment. Children with visual impairments who participated in sports had significantly higher object control skill scores than those who did not. No significant associations between motor skills and sports participation were found in the sighted children. (Contains 4 tables.)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation between training load, recovery, and monthly field test performance in young elite soccer players to develop training guidelines to enhance performance. In a prospective, non-experimental cohort design, 18 young elite soccer players registered training and match duration for a full competitive season by means of daily training logs. Furthermore, session rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and total quality of recovery (TQR) scores were recorded. Weekly duration ([TL.sub.d]), load (duration x session RPE = [TL.sup.rpe]), and TQR scores were calculated for 1 and 2 weeks before a monthly submaximal interval shuttle run tests to determine interval endurance capacity. Participants spent on average 394.4 [+ or -] 134.9 minutes per week on training and game play with an average session RPE of 14.4 [+ or -] 1.2 (somewhat hard) and TQR of 14.7 [+ or -] 1.3 (good recovery). Random intercept models showed that every extra hour training or game play resulted in enhanced field test performance (p < 0.05). Session RPE and TQR scores did not contribute to the prediction of performance. The duration of training and game play in the week before field test performance is most strongly related to interval endurance capacity. Therefore, coaches should focus on training duration to improve interval endurance capacity in elite soccer players. To evaluate the group and individual training response, field tests should be frequently executed and be incorporated in the training program. KEY WORDS training load, interval endurance capacity, hierarchical linear model, football

Purpose: To provide insight on the development of pacing behavior in junior speed skaters and analyze possible differences between elite, subelite, and nonelite juniors. Methods: Season-best times (SBTs) in the 1500-m and corresponding pacing behavior were obtained longitudinally for 104 Dutch male speed skaters at age 13-14 (U15), 15-16 (U17), and 17-18 (U19) y. Based on their U19 SBT, skaters were divided into elite (n = 17), subelite (n = 64), and nonelite (n = 23) groups. Pacing behavior was analyzed using the 0- to 300-m, 300- to 700-m, 700- to 1100-m, and 1100- to 1500-m times, expressed as a percentage of final time. Mixed analyses of variance were used for statistical analyses. Results: With age, pacing behavior generally developed toward a slower 0- to 300-m and 1100- to 1500-m and a faster midsection relative to final time. While being faster on all sections, the elite were relatively slower on 0- to 300-m (22.1% ± 0.27%) than the subelite and nonelite (21.5% ± 0.44%) (P < .01) but relatively faster on 300- to 700-m (24.6% ± 0.30%) than the nonelite (24.9% ± 0.58%) (P = .002). On 700- to 1100-m, the elite and subelite (26.2% ± 0.25%) were relatively faster than the nonelite (26.5% ± 0.41%) (P = .008). Differences in the development of pacing behavior were found from U17 to U19, with relative 700- to 1100-m times decreasing for the elite and subelite (26.2% ± 0.31% to 26.1% ± 0.27%) but increasing for the nonelite (26.3% ± 0.29% to 26.5% ± 0.41%) (P = .014). Conclusions: Maintaining high speed into 700 to 1100 m, accompanied by a relatively slower start, appears crucial for high performance in 1500-m speed skating. Generally, juniors develop toward this profile, with a more pronounced development toward a relatively faster 700- to 1100-m from U17 to U19 for elite junior speed skaters. The results of the current study indicate the relevance of pacing behavior for talent development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effect of limited peripheral vision on the shuttle sprint performance of soccer players. Participants were 14 male soccer players of a student soccer club (M age = 22.1 yr., SD = 1.3 yr.). They performed a repeated shuttle sprint with full and limited peripheral vision. Mean total sprint time and mean turning time increased significantly with limited peripheral vision. It is concluded that only turning during shuttle sprint performance decreases when sprinting with a restricted peripheral field of view, indicating the use of peripheral vision for the control of directional changes while sprinting.

The influence of intermittent exercise on a choice-response time task was investigated. Two groups of 8 male soccer players (M age = 20.9, SD = 2.0) participated. They spent 4.4 (SD = 1.3) weekly hours on soccer training and had been playing soccer for 13 (SD = 3.3) years. Multiple-choice reaction speed and response accuracy were measured four times. Between measurements, one group performed 8-min. blocks of intermittent exercise on a bicycle ergometer and one group rested. Analysis showed that reaction speed and response accuracy were not significantly different between the two groups. Furthermore, there were significant faster reaction times and a larger number of correct reactions through Block 2 in both the exercise and control group (p < .05), probably a result of learning processes and familiarization with the task procedures. Further research towards the specific influence of mode of exercise, intensity, work-rest ratio and duration of intermittent exercise, and the sensitivity of reaction time tasks will be necessary to clarify the relationship between intermittent exercise and cognitive performance.

The reliability of the interval shuttle run test (ISRT) as a submaximal and maximal field test to measure intermittent endurance capacity was examined. During the ISRT, participants alternately run for 30 seconds and walk for 15 seconds. The running speed is increased from 10 km x [h.sup.-1] every 90 seconds until exhaustion. Within a 2-week period, 17 intermittent sport players (i.e., 10 men and 7 women) performed the ISRT twice in a sports hall under well-standardized conditions. Heart rates per speed and total number of runs were assessed as submaximal and maximal performance measures. With the exception of the heart rates at 10.0 km x [h.sup.-1] for men and 10.0, 12.0, and 13.5 km x [h.sup.-1] for women, zero lay within the 95% confidence interval of the mean differences, indicating that no bias existed between the outcome measures at the 2 test sessions (absolute reliability). The results illustrate that it is important to control for heart rate before the start of the ISRT. Relative reliability was high (intraclass correlation coefficient [greater than or equal to] 0.86). We conclude that the reliability of the ISRT as a submaximal and maximal field test for intermittent sport players is supported by the results. KEY WORDS. intermittent sport physiology, field test, interval endurance capacity