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The influence of kinship on animal cooperation is often unclear. Cooperating Asiatic lion coalitions are linearly hierarchical; male partners appropriate resources disproportionately. To investigate how kinship affect coalitionary dynamics, we combined microsatellite based genetic inferences with long-term genealogical records to measure relatedness between coalition partners of free-ranging lions in Gir, India. Large coalitions had higher likelihood of having sibling partners, while pairs were primarily unrelated. Fitness computations incorporating genetic relatedness revealed that low-ranking males in large coalitions were typically related to the dominant males and had fitness indices higher than single males, contrary to the previous understanding of this system based on indices derived from behavioural metrics alone. This demonstrates the indirect benefits to (related) males in large coalitions. Dominant males were found to ‘lose less’ if they lost mating opportunities to related partners versus unrelated males. From observations on territorial conflicts we show that while unrelated males cooperate, kin-selected benefits are ultimately essential for the maintenance of large coalitions. Although large coalitions maximised fitness as a group, demographic parameters limited their prevalence by restricting kin availability. Such demographic and behavioural constraints condition two-male coalitions to be the most attainable compromise for Gir lions.

Electricity supply lines through wildlife habitats can adversely affect biodiversity, yet lack of evidence impedes their mitigation in tropical developing countries. We assessed power line induced bird mortality in 4200 km2 area of the Thar desert, India during 2017–18. We searched for carcasses in 2000 × 60 m2 belts along 40 randomly selected power lines over six multi-season surveys, and in 20 control transects that were surveyed once. We experimentally corrected for count biases by estimating persistence and detection probabilities of 88 fresh carcasses, using Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and binomial GLM, respectively. Scaling mortality by power line crossings of bird families, we examined the influence of group traits on vulnerability, using GLM. We examined the effect of power line mortality on population viability of the Critically Endangered great Indian bustard. We found 289 carcasses of >40 species at power lines and none at control transects. As expected, carcass persistence time and detectability were lower for small birds ( 1000 g). Bias-adjusted mortality was estimated at 3.05 carcasses (95% CI 0.82–6.03) and 5.97 (2.5–10.50) carcasses km−1 month−1 for

Sequence of species specific primer designed for leopards, itâ s annealing temperature and product size. Table S2. List of species mitochondrial sequences used in alignment for leopard specific primer design, with their accession numbers on NCBI database. (DOCX 78 kb)

Populations of the Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica) are endangered, with ~3500 individuals estimated worldwide. Threats to this precarious population is exacerbated by accidental entanglement and illegal hunting for oil, which is used in bait fisheries and traditional medicine. Alternatives to dolphin oil have been proposed and extensively promoted in India, to curb the immediate threat to dolphin populations. However, it is not known whether dolphins are still being poached for oil, despite the proposal of aforementioned alternatives. Herein, a molecular protocol to monitor the presence of Dolphin DNA, using species identification of DNA extracted from bait oils obtained from fishermen is presented. This is coupled with information from social surveys to understand the current status of use of dolphin oil. Results indicate that molecular tools provide an accurate technique for detecting the presence of dolphin DNA, and can be used by enforcement agencies to monitor and identify points of threat to dolphins. Social survey results indicate the preference of fishermen to continue the use of dolphin oil for bait, despite knowing the legal implications. It is found that alternate oils do not provide an effective solution to curb dolphin oil use, and only shifts the threats of endangerment from one species to another, in the long run. The ban of bait fishing, effective enforcement combined with monitoring through molecular tools, continued community engagement and livelihood skill development are the most viable solutions for a holistic conservation approach., Bait fishing; River conservation; DNA; Dolphin oil; Ganges dolphin; Poaching; Aquatic ecology; Wildlife ecology; Environmental management; Nature conservation; Genetics; Environmental science; Ecology.

The Dravidian language family consists of about 80 varieties (Hammarström H. 2016Glottolog 2.7) spoken by 220 million people across southern and central India and surrounding countries (Steever SB. 1998 InThe Dravidian languages(ed. SB Steever), pp. 1–39: 1). Neither the geographical origin of the Dravidian language homeland nor its exact dispersal through time are known. The history of these languages is crucial for understanding prehistory in Eurasia, because despite their current restricted range, these languages played a significant role in influencing other language groups including Indo-Aryan (Indo-European) and Munda (Austroasiatic) speakers. Here, we report the results of a Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of cognate-coded lexical data, elicited first hand from native speakers, to investigate the subgrouping of the Dravidian language family, and provide dates for the major points of diversification. Our results indicate that the Dravidian language family is approximately 4500 years old, a finding that corresponds well with earlier linguistic and archaeological studies. The main branches of the Dravidian language family (North, Central, South I, South II) are recovered, although the placement of languages within these main branches diverges from previous classifications. We find considerable uncertainty with regard to the relationships between the main branches.

Supplementary Materials containing additional Figures and analysis, as well as a literature review on the 20 sampled Dravidian languages

Identifying and prioritising naturally occurring within-species diversity, which may correlate with local adaptations or vicariance, is an integral part of conservation planning. Using non-invasive sampling and a panel of 11 microsatellites on 158 individual tigers from a pan India sample, our evaluation revealed three population clusters in India: unique North-Eastern tigers, a combined cluster of Western Ghats, Western India and Terai tigers, and a mixed cluster from Central India. At further population division, tigers from Odisha, Valmiki and southern Western Ghats were distinct. Central Indian tigers were most diverse, but showed the highest level of local structuring, suggestive of human induced fragmentation. We show that tigers in India are genetically structured and some clusters are unique. Considering a combined analysis of population size, genetic diversity and uniqueness, tigers from the North-East hills, and southern Western Ghats emerge as conservation priorities. We propose reintroductions and supplementation of tigers be done among the same broad genetic clusters. Restoration and management of habitat corridors is vital for anthropogenically fragmented Central Indian populations. This study suggests a paradigm shift from indiscriminately doubling tiger numbers to prioritising conservation of naturally occurring diversity amongst tigers, to retain their full evolutionary potential, while managing to mitigate anthropogenic induced genetic structuring. Keywords: Conservation priority, Divergence, Diversity, Microsatellites, Population structure, Panthera tigris

Sequence of species specific primer designed for leopards, itâ s annealing temperature and product size. Table S2: List of species mitochondrial sequences used in alignment for leopard specific primer design, with their accession numbers on NCBI database. (DOCX 76Â kb)

Background Non-invasive sampling has opened avenues for the genetic study of elusive species, which has contributed significantly to their conservation. Where field based identity of non-invasive sample is ambiguous (e.g. carnivore scats), it is essential to establish identity of the species through molecular approaches. A cost effective procedure to ascertain species identity is to use species specific primers (SSP) for PCR amplification and subsequent resolution through agarose gel electrophoresis. However, SSPs if ill designed can often cross amplify non-target sympatric species. Herein we report the problem of cross amplification with currently published SSPs, which have been used in several recent scientific articles on tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (Panthera pardus) in India. Since these papers form pioneering research on which future work will be based, an early rectification is required so as to not propagate this error further. Results We conclusively show cross amplification of three of the four SSPs, in sympatric non-target species like tiger SSP amplifying leopard and striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), and leopard SSP amplifying tiger, lion (Panthera leo persica) and clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), with the same product size. We develop and test a non-cross-amplifying leopard specific primer pair within the mitochondrial cytochrome b region. We also standardize a duplex PCR method to screen tiger and leopard samples simultaneously in one PCR reaction to reduce cost and time. Conclusions These findings suggest the importance of an often overlooked preliminary protocol of conclusive identification of species from non-invasive samples. The cross amplification of published primers in conspecifics suggests the need to revisit inferences drawn by earlier work. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12863-016-0344-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.