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COVID-19 and influenza are highly contagious respiratory viral diseases and priority global public health concerns. We conducted a retrospective observational study of COVID-19 and/or influenza hospitalized cases, during 2023. We identified 170 influenza cases, 150 COVID-19 cases and 3 co-infections. Overall, 29.10% of patients had at least one COVID-19 vaccine dose and 4.6% received the seasonal Flu vaccine. The demographic data found older patients in the COVID-19 group and a higher index of the comorbidities, mainly due to chronic heart diseases, hypertension, and diabetes. Fever, chills, and rhinorrhea were more frequently related to influenza, while cough was prevalent in COVID-19. Antibiotics were more used in influenza than COVID-19, either pre-hospital or in-hospital. The mortality rate within the first 30 days from the onset of the respiratory infection was higher in influenza compared to COVID-19. We concluded that the COVID-19 clinical picture in hospitalized patients is changing to influenza-like symptoms. The evolution is variable, related to chronic comorbidities, but influenza had more frequent severe forms. All through 2023, due to poor vaccination rates, COVID-19 and influenza have continued to cause numerous hospitalizations, and a new strategy for efficient vaccinations is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 44-year-old patient presented with hoarseness of voice and a polypoidal lesion on the left vocal cord. Complete excision was done. To our knowledge, this is the second reported case of molluscum contagiosum of the vocal cords. It should be considered as a differential diagnosis of a vocal cord lesion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Miscanthus × giganteus biomass plays a crucial role in producing renewable energy and bio-based products, supporting global sustainability objectives. However, its introduction into the European Union has made it susceptible to the ectoparasitic needle nematode Longidorus spp., which are known vectors of severe viral diseases. The aim of the presented research was to assess the effectiveness of the following soil amendments: vermicompost from Eisenia fetida and silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) applied to the soil with Miscanthus plants following artificial inoculation of Longidorus elongatus. A two-year experiment was conducted at the National Institute of Horticulture Research in Skierniewice using concrete rings filled with medium sandy soil amended with 10% peat. Treatments included: control (no amendments), vermicompost (4 L of E. fetida vermicompost), and Ag-NPs (60 mg/L soil). Each treatment was replicated four times. Application of both vermicompost and Ag-NPs positively influenced soil parameters and crop yield while suppressing nematode populations. Significant reductions in L. elongatus density were observed: vermicompost reduced nematode population by 80% and Ag-NPs by 90% compared to the control (15%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Female infertility is a major public health concern, and viral infections have been suggested as a potential cause. The recent emergence of coronaviruses, such as SARS-CoV-2, has raised concerns about their potential impact on female fertility. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the existing literature on the relationship between female infertility and viral diseases, with a particular focus on coronaviruses. A systematic review was conducted using relevant databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Studies published between 2009 and 2023 were included. The Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) tool was used to assess the quality of the studies. Data extraction and synthesis was carried out to summarize the findings. 13 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. The review demonstrated that many type viruses including human papillomavirus (HPV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and coronaviruses van affect female reproductive system. Moreover, findings revealed that some viral infections such as HPV and HIV may be associated with female infertility. However, evidence on the effect of coronaviruses on female infertility was limited and inconclusive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: SARS-COV-2 is one of prothrombotic illness, and this raise mortality and morbidity. Rivaroxaban is one of antithrombotic agent helpful in reducing SARS-COV-2 morbidity and mortality. The study aimed to assess the effectiveness of early administration of Rivaroxaban in reducing SARS-COV-2 mortality. Method: A cross-sectional observational study was done among 200 Iraqi cases with SARSCOV-2. The cases attended a private outpatient clinic at a period from June 2020 to July 2022. All cases received Rx (20mg one by one). The data included age, gender, smoking tobacco, comorbidities, treatment with Rx, any complication and bleeding occurrence. Results: The mean age of (50.2 ± 18.6 years). The proportion of 44% within the age group (40- 55) years. Females were prevalent (120, 60% of cases). Smokers were 139 cases (69.6%). Cases with comorbidity were 150 (75%). Of most study cases, 160 (80%) had moderate SARS-COV-2. D-dimer was elevated in 145 (72.5%). Hospitalized cases were 44 (22%). Cases required ICU admission were 28 (14%). Eleven cases were died. Clinical bleeding documented in 25 cases. Conclusion: Rx 20 mg 1×1 as early management in moderate and severe SARS-COV-2 cases cans potentially protecting from thrombotic squeal. Follow-up of patients received Rx is mandatory. The administration should follow international guideline in prevent thromboembolic phenomena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

COVID-19 and influenza are highly contagious respiratory viral diseases and priority global public health concerns. We conducted a retrospective observational study of COVID-19 and/or influenza hospitalized cases, during 2023. We identified 170 influenza cases, 150 COVID-19 cases and 3 co-infections. Overall, 29.10% of patients had at least one COVID-19 vaccine dose and 4.6% received the seasonal Flu vaccine. The demographic data found older patients in the COVID-19 group and a higher index of the comorbidities, mainly due to chronic heart diseases, hypertension, and diabetes. Fever, chills, and rhinorrhea were more frequently related to influenza, while cough was prevalent in COVID-19. Antibiotics were more used in influenza than COVID-19, either pre-hospital or in-hospital. The mortality rate within the first 30 days from the onset of the respiratory infection was higher in influenza compared to COVID-19. We concluded that the COVID-19 clinical picture in hospitalized patients is changing to influenza-like symptoms. The evolution is variable, related to chronic comorbidities, but influenza had more frequent severe forms. All through 2023, due to poor vaccination rates, COVID-19 and influenza have continued to cause numerous hospitalizations, and a new strategy for efficient vaccinations is required.

Copyright of Veterinarska Stanica is the property of Croatian Veterinary Institute and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Abstract Background In this study, we investigated the prevalence of respiratory viruses in four Hybrid Converter Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) farms in Egypt. The infected birds displayed severe respiratory signs, accompanied by high mortality rates, suggesting viral infections. Five representative samples from each farm were pooled and tested for H5 & H9 subtypes of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), Avian Orthoavulavirus-1 (AOAV-1), and turkey rhinotracheitis (TRT) using real-time RT-PCR and conventional RT-PCR. Representative tissue samples from positive cases were subjected to histopathology and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Results The PCR techniques confirmed the presence of AOAV-1 and H5 AIV genes, while none of the tested samples were positive for H9 or TRT. Microscopic examination of tissue samples revealed congestion and hemorrhage in the lungs, liver, and intestines with leukocytic infiltration. IHC revealed viral antigens in the lungs, liver, and intestines. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that H5 HA belonged to 2.3.4.4b H5 sublineage and AOAV-1 belonged to VII 1.1 genotype. Conclusions The study highlights the need for proper monitoring of hybrid converter breeds for viral diseases, and the importance of vaccination programs to prevent unnecessary losses. To our knowledge, this is the first study that reports the isolation of AOAV-1 and H5Nx viruses from Hybrid Converter Turkeys in Egypt.

Since the significance of viral infections in children and adolescents with nephrotic syndrome (NS) is yet to be defined, this study intended to estimate the occurrence, pattern, and outcomes of some DNA viral infections in children with NS. Methods: A prospective study was conducted to determine the genome identification of the viruses Epstein-Barr (EBV), human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6 type A and type B) and 7 (HHV-7), polyomavirus (BKV), and human adenovirus (HAdV) in plasma and urine samples of pediatric patients with NS. Results: A total of 35 patients aged 1 to 18 years with NS and under immunosuppressant drugs participated in the study. Plasma and urine samples were collected at regular intervals during a median follow-up of 266 days (range 133–595), and DNA was analyzed to detect the selected DNA viruses. Eleven patients (31.4%) had active virus infections, and patterns were classified as coinfection, recurrent, and consecutive. Of these, six patients (54.5%) presented viral coinfection, six (54.5%) viral recurrence, and seven patients (63.3%) had viral consecutive infection. Ten of the eleven patients with active infection had a proteinuria relapse (91%) and eight (72.7%) were hospitalized (p = 0.0022). Active HCMV infection was the most frequent infection and was observed in six patients (54.5%), three of the eleven patients (27.2%) had suspected HCMV disease in the gastrointestinal tract, and one had HHV-7 coinfection. The frequency of other infections was: 9% for HHV-6, 45.5% for BKV, 27.3% for HHV-7, 18.2% for EBV, and 18.2% for HAdV. Conclusion: viral infections, especially HCMV, can be an important cause of morbidity and nephrotic syndrome relapse in children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fig mosaic disease (FMD) poses a significant threat to fig (Ficus carica) trees globally. Fig mosaic virus (Emaravirus fici, Family Fimoviridae) is one of the main causes involved in FMD. E. fici has been reported in many countries, including Iran. This research investigated the genetic diversity and distribution of this virus in Kermanshah Province, the third fig‐producing region in Iran. In 2021 and 2022, 128 samples, mainly displaying FMD symptoms, were collected from fig trees across nine counties. Using DAS‐ELISA with polyclonal antibodies, 86 samples tested positive for fig mosaic virus. The 2‐year‐old healthy fig saplings grafted with scions from infected trees exhibited mosaic symptoms and tested positive for the virus in DAS‐ELISA. Reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) by RdRp‐specific primers (E5‐s and E5‐a) also amplified a DNA fragment with the expected size of about 302 bp from the ELISA‐positive samples. Five of the 12 symptomless samples showed positive results in both DAS‐ELISA and RT‐PCR. This indicates that the absence of symptoms in propagation sources does not imply that they are virus‐free. Nucleotide sequences of RT‐PCR products confirmed the fig mosaic virus infection. BLAST analysis of 20 samples (GenBank accession numbers OQ552535 to OQ552554) revealed that 19 sequences show high nucleotide identity (93.4%–96.8%) with an isolate from Lorestan Province, Iran (GenBank accession number KT732024). Notably, isolate FM203 showed distinct genetic divergence (86.6%–90.2% nucleotide identity) and shared similarities with some other Iranian isolates, including those from Kermanshah and Mazandaran provinces. Phylogenetic analysis grouped most isolates with the Lorestan isolate, while FM203 was placed in a separate cluster. This study highlighted the widespread presence of fig mosaic virus in Kermanshah Province, emphasizing varying infection rates across different counties, with Dalahoo County (Rijab) showing the highest prevalence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a crop that is affected by more than a hundred viral species. De la pera is a local varietal type of tomato that is very popular in southeastern Spain. However, it is highly susceptible to several viruses, such as Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), which is considered one of the most important diseases of tomato crops and is a limiting factor for production in both outdoor and protected crops, making it difficult to eradicate. This study shows the effect of gene introgression on the performance of traditional lines of De la pera by combining two genes that offer tolerance to TYLCV, Ty-1 and ty-5, on some yield and quality traits and on the antioxidant capacity of tomato fruits. Two pear tomato breeding families, UMH175 and UMH220, were evaluated. Four lines from each of the families with all homozygous combinations of the Ty-1 and ty-5 genes were studied. The results showed that the introgression of the ty-5 allele produced a slight negative effect on yield, mean fruit weight, total soluble solids, and titratable acidity, in contrast to Ty-1, which produced a large negative effect. None of the introgressions showed a negative effect on the antioxidant compounds. ty-5 is a promising gene for use in breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pig farming has become a strategically significant and economically important industry across the globe. It is also a potentially vulnerable sector due to challenges posed by transboundary diseases in which viral infections are at the forefront. Among the porcine viral diseases, African swine fever, classical swine fever, foot and mouth disease, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome, pseudorabies, swine influenza, and transmissible gastroenteritis are some of the diseases that cause substantial economic losses in the pig industry. It is a well-established fact that vaccination is undoubtedly the most effective strategy to control viral infections in animals. From the period of Jenner and Pasteur to the recent new-generation technology era, the development of vaccines has contributed significantly to reducing the burden of viral infections on animals and humans. Inactivated and modified live viral vaccines provide partial protection against key pathogens. However, there is a need to improve these vaccines to address emerging infections more comprehensively and ensure their safety. The recent reports on new-generation vaccines against swine viruses like DNA, viral-vector-based replicon, chimeric, peptide, plant-made, virus-like particle, and nanoparticle-based vaccines are very encouraging. The current review gathers comprehensive information on the available vaccines and the future perspectives on porcine viral vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Foco (Interdisciplinary Studies Journal) is the property of Revista Foco and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background and Aims: Disease X represents the possibility that an unidentified infection may spread globally and start a pandemic. This study explored various aspects of emerging non‐polio enteroviruses (NPEVs) as a possible source of "Disease X," an enigmatic agent declared by the World Health Organization, and discussed the potential impact of NPEVs on global public health. Methods: In this perspective article, we collected information from publicly available sources such as Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus. We used NPEVs, viral diseases, pandemics, and zoonotic diseases as keywords. We extracted information from the most relevant articles. Results: Notable outbreaks caused by NPEVs include enterovirus D68 (EV‐D68) and enterovirus A71 (EV‐A71), among many others. With a focus on therapeutic and preventative components, alternate modes of therapy, and the development of broad‐spectrum antivirals, this analysis looks at the origin, epidemiology, genetic alterations, transmission dynamics, and disease pathophysiology of NPEVs. The information presented in the review indicates the current risk assessment of NPEVs, taking into account the following factors: the need for research and therapeutic interventions, the diversity of clinical manifestations, the impact of genetic variability on virulence, the persistence of emergence despite vaccination efforts, recurrent outbreaks, and the global impact of these viruses. Conclusion: There is a possibility that NPEVs could trigger global pandemics based on their zoonotic origins and urges for complete readiness, continuous research, cooperation, and a comprehensive strategy to combat emerging infectious diseases in a constantly changing global environment. It is peak time to acknowledge how important it is to abide by safety and health laws to prevent these illnesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of viral diseases poses a significant challenge to the high-quality, efficient, and sustainable production of apples. Virus eradication and the use of virus-free plants are currently the most crucial method for preventing viral diseases. Among the viruses affecting apples, apple stem grooving virus (ASGV) and apple chlorotic leaf spot virus (ACLSV) present particular challenges in efficient eradication from apples. This study investigated the effects of exogenous salicylic acid (SA) treatment on the efficient eradication of ASGV and ACLSV from apple cultivar ‘Yanfu 8’. Shoots were excised from in vitro 4-week-old stock and cultured in shoot proliferation medium supplemented with 10 μM SA combining thermotherapy with shoot tip culture or cryotherapy for ASGV and ACLSV eradication. The results showed that including of 10 μM SA in thermotherapy significantly reduced the concentrations of ASGV and ACLSV by 33% and 14% in shoots compared to thermotherapy without SA. SA treatment also improved the shoot tips survival and regrowth after combining 2 or 4 weeks of thermotherapy followed by shoot tip culture or shoot tip cryotherapy, while maintaining the higher (75–100%) of virus eradication efficiencies. Therefore, the application of SA in combination with thermotherapy followed or not by cryotherapy proves to be a promising approach for enhancing the efficiency of virus eradication in apple.Key Message: The establishment of a salicylic acid combining thermotherapy with shoot tip culture or cryotherapy of apple shoots provided technical support for the eradication of apple viruses in apple plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In this study, we investigated the prevalence of respiratory viruses in four Hybrid Converter Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) farms in Egypt. The infected birds displayed severe respiratory signs, accompanied by high mortality rates, suggesting viral infections. Five representative samples from each farm were pooled and tested for H5 & H9 subtypes of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), Avian Orthoavulavirus-1 (AOAV-1), and turkey rhinotracheitis (TRT) using real-time RT-PCR and conventional RT-PCR. Representative tissue samples from positive cases were subjected to histopathology and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Results: The PCR techniques confirmed the presence of AOAV-1 and H5 AIV genes, while none of the tested samples were positive for H9 or TRT. Microscopic examination of tissue samples revealed congestion and hemorrhage in the lungs, liver, and intestines with leukocytic infiltration. IHC revealed viral antigens in the lungs, liver, and intestines. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that H5 HA belonged to 2.3.4.4b H5 sublineage and AOAV-1 belonged to VII 1.1 genotype. Conclusions: The study highlights the need for proper monitoring of hybrid converter breeds for viral diseases, and the importance of vaccination programs to prevent unnecessary losses. To our knowledge, this is the first study that reports the isolation of AOAV-1 and H5Nx viruses from Hybrid Converter Turkeys in Egypt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viruses are a real threat to every organism at any stage of life leading to extensive infections and casualties. N-heterocycles can affect the viral life cycle at many points, including viral entrance into host cells, viral genome replication, and the production of novel viral species. Certain N-heterocycles can also stimulate the host's immune system, producing antiviral cytokines and chemokines that can stop the reproduction of viruses. This review focused on recent five- or six-membered synthetic N-heterocyclic molecules showing antiviral activity through SAR analyses. The review will assist in identifying robust scaffolds that might be utilized to create effective antiviral drugs with either no or few side effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In October 2023, the Tel Aviv District was notified of ten cases of measles. The outbreak initiated in a preschool with high vaccination coverage with one dose of MMR vaccine. Serological testing was available for eight patients (six children and two adults). Among the six children vaccinated with one dose of MMR vaccine, primary vaccine failure was demonstrated. Among the adults, secondary vaccine failure was confirmed. The outbreak was successfully contained due to a combination of factors, notably its occurrence within a population characterized by high vaccination coverage in Tel Aviv, during a period of restricted public interactions due to the prevailing state of war in the country. Despite challenging wartime conditions, effective prophylactic measures were promptly executed, encompassing a 2-dose MMR vaccination schedule for close contacts and the broader community of children in the TA district, successfully curbing the outbreak and preventing widespread infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terpenoids are a diverse class of natural compounds derived from isoprene units that have shown significant potential as antiviral agents. This review aimed to comprehensively explore the antiviral activities of terpenoids and their implications in the field of virology. Key findings from various studies have demonstrated the efficacy of terpenoids against a wide range of viruses, including both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Mechanistic insights into their antiviral action involve interference with viral entry, replication, and modulation of the host immune responses. Their multifaceted mechanisms of action make them attractive targets for combating viral infections and offer opportunities for synergy with existing antiviral drugs. Despite substantial progress in this field, several gaps must be addressed, including elucidation of specific molecular targets and signaling pathways of different terpenoids, investigations of its safety and potential side effects, and optimization of formulations and delivery methods for better bioavailability and pharmacokinetics. In conclusion, this comprehensive review provides a foundation for continued exploration and innovation in terpenoid-based antiviral research with the ultimate aim of improving global health outcomes in the face of viral threats. [ J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther 2024; 7(1.000): 221-238]

Yushan Xu, Miaomiao Li, Mengjiao Lin, Dawei Cui, Jue Xie Department of Blood Transfusion, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310003, People’s Republic of ChinaCorrespondence: Jue Xie; Dawei Cui, Tel +86571-87236391 ; +86571-87236390, Email zyyyxj2011@zju.edu.cn; daweicui@zju.edu.cnAbstract: CD4+ T cells play a critical role in the pathogenesis of viral diseases, which are activated by the internal metabolic pathways encountering with viral antigens. Glutaminolysis converts glutamine into tricarboxylic acid (TCA) circulating metabolites by α-ketoglutaric acid, which is essential for the proliferation and differentiation of CD4+ T cells and plays a central role in providing the energy and structural components needed for viral replication after the virus hijacks the host cell. Changes in glutaminolysis in CD4+ T cells are accompanied by changes in the viral status of the host cell due to competition for glutamine between immune cells and host cells. More recently, attempts have been made to treat tumours, autoimmune diseases, and viral diseases by altering the breakdown of glutamine in T cells. In this review, we will discuss the current knowledge of glutaminolysis in the CD4+ T cell subsets from viral diseases, not only increasing our understanding of immunometabolism but also providing a new perspective for therapeutic target in viral diseases.Keywords: CD4+ T cells, viral diseases, glutamine, glutaminolysis, immune response

Copyright of Egyptian Journal of Botany is the property of Egyptian National Agricultural Library (ENAL) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Simple Summary: Buffaloes are typically raised in tropical, flood-prone zones, thus exposed to conditions conducive to the growth of disease-causing pathogens and their vectors. They generally share the habitat with cattle, representing sanitary problems because viral agents can transmit between both species; many are zoonotic and public health concerns. The mobilization and introduction of buffaloes and their biological products from one continent or country to another pose a risk of spreading viral diseases considered exotic in certain regions. This underscores the critical need for rigorous epidemiological surveillance of infectious diseases within buffalo herds. Additionally, it highlights the potential implications and risks these diseases pose to other livestock species and public health in newly inhabited regions. This review discusses the more reported viral diseases in water buffaloes, their characteristics, epidemiology, disease behavior, and interaction with other species, vectors, and pathogens. The epidemiology of buffalo viral diseases must be continuously reconsidered and updated to obtain better prevention and control programs. The water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) has great adaptability to rustic environments and more variable conditions than cattle, who generally share the habitat. Diseases carried by buffaloes are relatively unknown and ignored and could be transmissible; an imbalance occurs between pathogens, environment, and susceptible hosts, generating a severe animal health problem. Also relevant is the effect of climate change on the populations of vectors that transmit viral diseases. The discovery of new virus variants that can pass from bovine (Bos) to buffalo or vice versa or to humans has highlighted the relevance of viruses crossing the host barrier. This review discusses the clinical viral diseases most reported in the water buffalo, characteristics, epidemiology, and recent findings about disease behavior, interaction with other species, the host, vectors, and pathogens. Diseases reviewed include Foot and Mouth Disease, Rinderpest, Malignant Catarrhal Fever, Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, Bovine Viral Diarrhea, and Rabies. Also, vector-borne diseases include Lumpy Skin Disease, Ephemeral Fever, and Blue Tongue. The review also considers emerging viruses such as Buffalo Pox and Schmallenberg and, finally, other viruses such as papillomatosis. The knowledge and epidemiology of buffalo viral diseases must be constantly reconsidered and updated for adequate prevention and control programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CD4+ T cells play a critical role in the pathogenesis of viral diseases, which are activated by the internal metabolic pathways encountering with viral antigens. Glutaminolysis converts glutamine into tricarboxylic acid (TCA) circulating metabolites by α-ketoglutaric acid, which is essential for the proliferation and differentiation of CD4+ T cells and plays a central role in providing the energy and structural components needed for viral replication after the virus hijacks the host cell. Changes in glutaminolysis in CD4+ T cells are accompanied by changes in the viral status of the host cell due to competition for glutamine between immune cells and host cells. More recently, attempts have been made to treat tumours, autoimmune diseases, and viral diseases by altering the breakdown of glutamine in T cells. In this review, we will discuss the current knowledge of glutaminolysis in the CD4+ T cell subsets from viral diseases, not only increasing our understanding of immunometabolism but also providing a new perspective for therapeutic target in viral diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peru was one of the most affected countries during the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, multiple other viral diseases (enteric, respiratory, bloodborne, and vector-borne) are endemic and rising. According to Peru's Ministry of Health, various health facilities in the country were reallocated for the COVID-19 pandemic, thereby leading to reduced action to curb other diseases. Many viral diseases in the area are under-reported and not recognized. The One Health approach, in addition to clinical testing, incorporates environmental surveillance for detection of infectious disease outbreaks. The purpose of this work is to use a screening tool that is based on molecular methods, high throughput sequencing and bioinformatics analysis of wastewater samples to identify virus-related diseases circulating in Trujillo-Peru. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the tool, we collected nine untreated wastewater samples from the Covicorti wastewater utility in Trujillo-Peru on October 22, 2022. High throughput metagenomic sequencing followed by bioinformatic analysis was used to assess the viral diversity of the samples. Our results revealed the presence of sequences associated with multiple human and zoonotic viruses including Orthopoxvirus, Hepatovirus, Rhadinovirus, Parechovirus, Mamastrovirus, Enterovirus, Varicellovirus, Norovirus, Kobuvirus, Bocaparvovirus, Simplexvirus, Spumavirus, Orthohepevirus, Cardiovirus, Molliscipoxvirus, Salivirus, Parapoxvirus, Gammaretrovirus, Alphavirus, Lymphocryptovirus, Erythroparvovirus, Sapovirus, Cosavirus, Deltaretrovirus, Roseolovirus, Flavivirus, Betacoronavirus, Rubivirus, Lentivirus, Betapolyomavirus, Rotavirus, Hepacivirus, Alphacoronavirus, Mastadenovirus, Cytomegalovirus and Alphapapillomavirus. For confirmation purposes, we tested the samples for the presence of selective viruses belonging to the genera detected above. PCR based molecular methods confirmed the presence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), monkeypox virus (MPXV), noroviruses GI and GII (NoVGI and NoVGII), and rotavirus A (RoA) in our samples. Furthermore, publicly available clinical data for selected viruses confirm our findings. Wastewater or other environmental media surveillance, combined with bioinformatics methods, has the potential to serve as a systematic screening tool for the identification of human or zoonotic viruses that may cause disease. The results of this method can guide further clinical surveillance efforts and allocation of resources. Incorporation of this bioinformatic-based screening tool by public health officials in Peru and other Latin American countries will help manage endemic and emerging diseases that could save human lives and resources.

Background: There is an obvious lack of information about the effects of ractopamine, a ß-adrenergic agonist, on the growth performance and immune responses of rabbits, particularly in those receiving the viral rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) vaccine. Aim: The current study was undertaken to study the effects of ractopamine on growth performances and immunological parameters in rabbits inoculated with the viral RHD vaccine. Methods: Experimental rabbits were grouped into four groups, the first acted as a control and received distilled water, the second received ractopamine, the third received inactivated RHD vaccine, and the fourth received both ractopamine, and inactivated RHD vaccine. Then Blood analysis, histopathological, histomorphometric, and immunohistochemistry examinations were followed. Results: The obtained results demonstrated that ractopamine induced significant increases in body weight gain, neutrophils, monocytes, nitric oxide, lysosome, and improved feed conversion rate. A significant decrease in lymphocytes with insignificant decreases in eosinophils, phagocytic % and index, serum total protein, α, β, and γ globulin were observed. Vaccinated rabbits only showed a marked rise in WBCs, neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils, phagocytic index and activity, nitric oxide, lysosome activity, total protein, albumin, γ globulin, and a decrease in lymphocytes. Rabbits that received ractopamine and then vaccinated had insignificant increases in body weight, weight gain, WBCs, neutrophils, monocyte, eosinophils, basophils, phagocytic activity, and index, globulins beside a significant decrease in lymphocytes. Pathologically, rabbits that received ractopamine alone, with a vaccine or vaccinated only showed an increase in villus length, villus width, and absorption surface area. Immunohistochemistry of rabbits' liver and kidneys of the control and vaccinated group showed negative expression for caspase-3, but rabbits received ractopamine only or rabbits vaccinated and received ractopamine showed diffuse positive moderate expression for caspase-3. Conclusion: Ractopamine induced several adverse effects on the immune responses of the rabbits inoculated with the viral HRD vaccine. [Open Vet J 2024; 14(1.000): 136 -143 ]

Background. In patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), a small but statistically significant decrease in absolute number of natural killer (NK) cells (CD56+) in the peripheral blood (PB) was found, especially pronounced with concomitant obesity. In connection with the above, one of the main aims of the present report was to further study the role of NK cells in patients with newly diagnosed T2DM, including those with obesity. For this purpose, a combination of flow cytometry methods with scanning and transmission electron microscopy was used to determine the number and function of CD56+ cells in the PB of patients with T2DM. Materials and methods. We examined 144 patients of both sexes with newly diagnosed T2DM aged 40–70 years who had no other acute or chronic diseases and had not previously taken any hypoglycemic drugs. The control group consisted of 50 healthy individuals with normoglycemia aged 40–65 years who had not COVID-19 disease. Results. Our studies have found that in untreated patients with newly diagnosed T2DM compared to healthy controls, there is a very small statistically significant decrease in the absolute number of CD56+ cells in the PB. When combining flow cytometry (FACS method), transmission and scanning electron microscopy in patients with T2DM, a significant change in the ultrastructure of CD56+ cells was revealed, indicating a decrease in their function (an increase in the number of cells with a smoother surface of the cell membrane, a sharp decrease in the number of azurophilic granules in the cytoplasm considered the main producer of cytokines and perforins, the appearance of parallel tubular structures, biomarkers of decreased cell function, a disruption of the Golgi apparatus structure, granular endoplasmic reticulum, etc.). The data obtained indicate that at the initial stage of T2DM development in humans, there is a pronounced weakening in the function of NK cells and, consequently, the natural immune defense of the body and explain the increased susceptibility of diabetics to various viruses and infections, including COVID-19, and also more severe clinical course and increased mortality. Conclusions. The conducted studies show that in patients with T2DM who are at the initial stage of T2DM, there is a sharp disturbance in the submicroscopic organization of CD56+ cells, the most important cellular element of natural immunity, which suggests a weakening of the function of natural immune defense. It is the main cause of increased sensitivity of diabetic patients to infection with various pathogens, including the SARS-CoV-2, as well as more severe clinical course and increased mortality rate.

Due to the Covid-19 pandemic more than 6 million people have died, and it has bought unprecedented challenges to our lives. The recent outbreak of monkeypox virus (MPXV) has brought out new tensions among the scientific community. Currently, there is no specific treatment protocol for MPXV. Several antivirals, vaccinia immune globulin (VIG) and smallpox vaccines have been used to treat MPXV. Ginseng, one of the more famous among traditional medicines, has been used for infectious disease for thousands of years. It has shown promising antiviral effects. Ginseng could be used as a potential adaptogenic agent to help prevent infection by MPXV along with other drugs and vaccines. In this mini review, we explore the possible use of ginseng in MPXV prevention based on its antiviral activity.

Iron-sulfur [Fe-S] clusters, comprising coordinated iron and sulfur atoms arranged in diverse configurations, play a pivotal role in redox reactions and various biological processes. Diverse structural variants of [Fe-S] clusters exist, each possessing distinct attributes and functions. Recent discovery of [Fe-S] clusters in infectious pathogens, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and in viruses, such as rotavirus, polyomavirus, hepatitis virus, mimivirus, and coronavirus, have sparked interest in them being a potential therapeutics target. Recent findings have associated these [Fe-S] cluster proteins playing a critical role in structural and host protein activity. However, for a very long time, metalloenzymes containing iron-sulfur clusters have been prone to destabilization in the presence of oxygen, which led to a delayed understanding of [Fe-S] proteins compared to other non-heme iron-containing proteins. Consequently, working with [Fe-S] proteins require specialized equipment, such as anaerobic chambers to maintain cofactor integrity, and tools like ultraviolet visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), Mössbauer spectroscopy and electrochemical characterization. Many of these [Fe-S] cluster proteins have been misannotated as Zinc-binding proteins when purified aerobically. Moreover, the assembly of these iron-sulfur cluster cofactors have not been fully understood since it is a multi-step assembly process. Additionally, disruptions in this assembly process have been linked to human diseases. With rapid advancements in anaerobic gloveboxes and spectroscopic techniques, characterization of these [Fe-S] cluster-containing proteins that are essential for the pathogens can open up new avenues for diagnostics and therapeutics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There is an obvious lack of information about the effects of ractopamine, a ß-adrenergic agonist, on the growth performance and immune responses of rabbits, particularly in those receiving the viral rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) vaccine. Aim: The current study was undertaken to study the effects of ractopamine on growth performances and immunological parameters in rabbits inoculated with the viral RHD vaccine. Methods: Experimental rabbits were grouped into four groups, the first acted as a control and received distilled water, the second received ractopamine, the third received inactivated RHD vaccine, and the fourth received both ractopamine, and inactivated RHD vaccine. Then, blood analysis, histopathological, histomorphometric, and immunohistochemistry (IHC) examinations were followed. Results: The obtained results demonstrated that ractopamine induced significant increases in body weight gain, neutrophils, monocytes, nitric oxide, lysosome, and improved feed conversion rate. A significant decrease in lymphocytes with insignificant decreases in eosinophils, phagocytic % and index, serum total protein, α, β, and γ globulin were observed. Vaccinated rabbits only showed a marked rise in WBCs, neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils, phagocytic index and activity, nitric oxide, lysosome activity, total protein, albumin, γ globulin, and a decrease in lymphocytes. Rabbits that received ractopamine and then vaccinated had insignificant increases in body weight, weight gain, WBCs, neutrophils, monocyte, eosinophils, basophils, phagocytic activity, and index, globulins besides a significant decrease in lymphocytes. Pathologically, rabbits that received ractopamine alone, with a vaccine or vaccinated only showed an increase in villus length, villus width, and absorption surface area. IHC of rabbits’ liver and kidneys of the control and vaccinated group showed negative expression for caspase-3, but rabbits received ractopamine only or rabbits vaccinated and received ractopamine showed diffuse positive moderate expression for caspase-3. Conclusion: Ractopamine induced several adverse effects on the immune responses of the rabbits inoculated with the viral HRD vaccine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are currently no effective anti-viral treatments for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)–hospitalized patients with hypoxemia. Lymphopenia is a biomarker of disease severity usually present in patients who are hospitalized. Approaches to increasing lymphocytes exerting an anti-viral effect must be considered to treat these patients. Following our phase 1 study, we performed a phase 2 randomized multicenter clinical trial in which we evaluated the efficacy of the infusion of allogeneic off-the-shelf CD45RA− memory T cells containing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-specific T cells from convalescent donors plus the standard of care (SoC) versus just the SoC treatment. Eighty-four patients were enrolled in three Spanish centers. The patients were randomized into the infusion of 1 × 106/kg CD45RA− memory T cells or the SoC. We selected four unvaccinated donors based on the expression of interferon gamma SARS-CoV-2–specific response within the CD45RA− memory T cells and the most frequent human leukocyte antigen typing in the Spanish population. We analyzed data from 81 patients. The primary outcome for recovery, defined as the proportion of participants in each group with normalization of fever, oxygen saturation sustained for at least 24 hours and lymphopenia recovery through day 14 or at discharge, was met for the experimental arm. We also observed faster lymphocyte recovery in the experimental group. We did not observe any treatment-related adverse events. Adoptive cell therapy with off-the-shelf CD45RA− memory T cells containing SAR-CoV-2–specific T cells is safe, effective and accelerates lymphocyte recovery of patients with COVID-19 pneumonia and/or lymphopenia. NCT04578210 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction The genus Malva (family Malvaceae) includes species of herbaceous plants which are often pluriannual and very common in borders and boundaries of cultivated fields, making them proper reservoirs for plant pathogens. They are most commonly used as ornamental plants, although they may be used as a food resource and remedy for various diseases. Common mallow (Malva sylvestris) is the most important Malva species which is used as garden flower as well as widely recognized for food and medicinal purposes. Malva sylvestris are reported to be affected by several viruses from different genera including malva vein clearing virus (MVCV, Potyvirus), alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV, Alfamovirus), malva-associated soymovirus 1 (MaSV1, Soymovirus) cucumber mosaic virus (CMV, Cucumovirus), and cotton leaf curl Gezira virus (CLCuGeV, Begomovirus). In this study, we attempted to identify important viruses infecting mallow plants and compare mallow isolates with other sequences in the GenBank. Materials and Methods In 2022-2023, twenty samples of mallow plants with viral-like symptoms on the leaves were collected from the urban landscape of Golestan province. Total RNA was extracted by DENAzist Total RNA Isolation Kit from fresh, infected mallow leaves. All samples were analyzed by RT-PCR with specific primer pairs for the detection of CMV, AMV, and MVCV. The amplified fragments in expected size of coat protein (CP) gene of each virus were visualized under UV light in agarose gel after electrophoresis, then amplified fragment of one isolate of each virus was bi-directionally sequenced. Obtained sequences were compared to data available in GenBank. The phylogenetic trees of viruses were constructed based on the nucleotide sequences of the coat protein gene using the neighbor-joining method by MEGA11. Results and Discussion All three viruses were detected in some symptomatic samples collected from Golestan province. The most typical symptoms in positive samples were mosaic, vein clearing, and leaf malformation. Of a total of 20 sampled plants, MVCV, CMV and AMV were detected by RT-PCR in nine, five and two samples, respectively. An amplicon of each virus was selected and sequenced in both directions. BLASTn analysis of the sequenced data confirmed that the PCR-amplified fragments belonged to MVCV, AMV, and CMV. Phylogenetic analysis based on the nucleotide sequence of CP gene of MVCV (n=21) including Iranian and GenBank isolates showed that all isolates are divided into six groups: G1 to G6. All Iranian isolates along with the isolate from the Netherlands were placed in group G5. The phylogenetic tree placed the CMV sequences (n=51) into two distinct phylogroups I and II; the obtained isolate CMV-IR-Ma clustered together with isolates from Iran, Netherlands, South Korea, Japan, China, Hungary, Australia, France and the USA into group II. According to the results of this study, AMV isolates (n=17) can be divided into two groups, I and II. Group I which includes isolates from Canada, China, Italy, Spain, Argentina, Australia and the USA, was divided into six subgroups. The obtained isolate AMV-IR-Ma was clustered in subgroup IB with a Chinese isolate (HZ) and forms a common branch with isolates (Ir-VM, Ir-WS, and Ir-WS2) from Iran. This is the first report of mallow (Malva sylvestris) infection with CMV and AMV in Iran using RT-PCR. In addition, mixed infection with two (MVCV+CMV and MVCV+AMV) or all three viruses (MVCV+CMV+AMV) was also confirmed in some samples. The phylogenetic trees showed that most of the viral isolates were not grouped according to their geographic locations. This suggests the dissemination and spread of these viruses through infected seeds. In Iran, M. sylvestris is a common weed found in fields, waste grounds, roadside verges and gardens. Considering the potential non-persistent aphid transmission as well as mechanical transmission, virus-infected mallows can act as a natural reservoir, thereby posing a threat to other ornamental plants and crops. Since the studied viruses were not detected in the other symptomatic plants, the observed symptoms can be caused by physiological disorders such as nutrient deficiencies, the presence of different viral strains, or other unknown and undetected viral species. Conclusions This study provides new knowledge on the diversity and molecular characteristics of viruses in mallow plants (M. sylvestris) affected by the viral disease. The information obtained from this study can be helpful in improving management strategies for disease caused by these viruses in Iran. Albeit M. sylvestris is a host of these viruses, but more comprehensive research on other viral species that may infect this plant need to be conducted. Weed management could be an effective way to eliminate inoculum sources of these viruses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The aim of this study was to describe the abdominal ultrasonographic findings in cats with confirmed or presumed feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). Methods: This was a retrospective study performed in an academic veterinary hospital. The diagnosis of FIP was reached on review of history, signalment, clinical presentation, complete blood count, biochemistry panel, peritoneal fluid analysis, cytology and/or histopathology results from abnormal organs, and/or molecular testing (immunohistochemical or FIP coronavirus [FCoV] RT-PCR). Cats with confirmed FIP by molecular testing or with a highly suspicious diagnosis of FIP were included. Abdominal ultrasound examination findings were reviewed. Results: In total, 25 cats were included. Common clinical signs/pathology findings included hyperglobulinemia (96%), anorexia/hyporexia (80%) and lethargy (56%). Abdominal ultrasound findings included effusion in 88% and lymphadenopathy in 80%. Hepatic changes were noted in 80%, the most common being hepatomegaly (58%) and a hypoechoic liver (48%). Intestinal changes were noted in 68% of cats, characterized by asymmetric wall thickening and/or loss of wall layering, with 52% being ileocecocolic junction and/or colonic in location. Splenic changes were present in 36% of cats, including splenomegaly, mottled parenchyma and hypoechoic nodules. Renal changes were present in 32%, encompassing a hypoechoic subcapsular rim and/or cortical nodules. Mesenteric and peritoneal abnormalities were seen in 28% and 16% of cats, respectively. Most cats (92%) had two or more locations of abdominal abnormalities on ultrasound. Conclusions and relevance: The present study documents a wider range and distribution of ultrasonographic lesions in cats with FIP than previously reported. The presence of effusion and lymph node, hepatic and/or gastrointestinal tract changes were the most common findings, and most of the cats had a combination of two or more abdominal abnormalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The seroepidemiology of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in South Africa is limited. We investigated anti-HEV IgM and IgG, in residual hepatitis A, B, and C negative serology specimens, at our public sector Free State (FS) laboratory. Of 299 specimens (01 May–31 October 2020), 182/299 (60.9%) had anti-HEV IgG and 1/299 (0.33%) had anti-HEV IgM. High HEV seroprevalence across different age groups suggests a different epidemiology in the FS, necessitating further research. Contribution: The need for HEV research in South Africa is highlighted. Clinicians should consider HEV in their differential diagnosis of patients with hepatitis.

Emerging evidence has figured that serum conversion rate of mumps is a crucial link of mumps disease. Nevertheless, a rising number of mumps outbreaks caused our attention and studies examining the serum conversion cases were conducted in small samples previously; this meta-analysis was conducted to assess the immunogenicity and safety of a mumps containing vaccine (MuCV) before 2019. We identified a total of 17 studies from the year of 2002–2017. In the case–control studies, the vaccine effectiveness (VE) of MuCV in preventing laboratory-confirmed mumps was 68% (odds risk: 0.32; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.14−0.70) while in the cohort studies and randomised control trials, 58% (relative risk [RR]: 0.42; 95% CI, 0.26−0.69). Similar intervals of effectiveness rates were found during non-outbreak periods compared with outbreak periods (VE: 66%; RR: 0.34; 95% CI, 0.18−0.68 versus VE: 49%; RR: 0.51; 95% CI, 0.21−1.27). In addition, the MuCV group with two and three doses did not show enhanced laboratory-confirmed mumps than one dose (VE: 58%; RR: 0.42; 95% CI, 0.20−0.88 versus VE: 65%, RR: 0.35; 95% CI, 0.20−0.61) for the reason of the overlap of 95% CI. MuCV had comparable effectiveness comparing non-outbreak and outbreak period, one dose, and two or three doses. MuCV displayed acceptable adverse event profiles.

This document is an editorial published in Frontiers in Microbiology titled "Viral emerging and re-emerging diseases: basic understanding and future intervention strategies." The editorial discusses the recent pandemic of COVID-19 caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus and highlights the impact of other emerging and re-emerging viruses on global health and the economy. The authors emphasize the importance of collaboration between the scientific community and public health authorities to anticipate and address future viral outbreaks. The editorial also presents recent research on various viral diseases, including influenza, monkeypox, papillomaviruses, and SARS-CoV-2, and discusses topics such as viral-host interactions, viral adaptation, and antiviral development. The authors conclude by emphasizing the need for early detection, prevention, and effective management of viral infectious diseases. [Extracted from the article]

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a crop that is affected by more than a hundred viral species. De la pera is a local varietal type of tomato that is very popular in southeastern Spain. However, it is highly susceptible to several viruses, such as Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), which is considered one of the most important diseases of tomato crops and is a limiting factor for production in both outdoor and protected crops, making it difficult to eradicate. This study shows the effect of gene introgression on the performance of traditional lines of De la pera by combining two genes that offer tolerance to TYLCV, Ty-1 and ty-5, on some yield and quality traits and on the antioxidant capacity of tomato fruits. Two pear tomato breeding families, UMH175 and UMH220, were evaluated. Four lines from each of the families with all homozygous combinations of the Ty-1 and ty-5 genes were studied. The results showed that the introgression of the ty-5 allele produced a slight negative effect on yield, mean fruit weight, total soluble solids, and titratable acidity, in contrast to Ty-1, which produced a large negative effect. None of the introgressions showed a negative effect on the antioxidant compounds. ty-5 is a promising gene for use in breeding programs.

Since the significance of viral infections in children and adolescents with nephrotic syndrome (NS) is yet to be defined, this study intended to estimate the occurrence, pattern, and outcomes of some DNA viral infections in children with NS. Methods: A prospective study was conducted to determine the genome identification of the viruses Epstein-Barr (EBV), human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6 type A and type B) and 7 (HHV-7), polyomavirus (BKV), and human adenovirus (HAdV) in plasma and urine samples of pediatric patients with NS. Results: A total of 35 patients aged 1 to 18 years with NS and under immunosuppressant drugs participated in the study. Plasma and urine samples were collected at regular intervals during a median follow-up of 266 days (range 133–595), and DNA was analyzed to detect the selected DNA viruses. Eleven patients (31.4%) had active virus infections, and patterns were classified as coinfection, recurrent, and consecutive. Of these, six patients (54.5%) presented viral coinfection, six (54.5%) viral recurrence, and seven patients (63.3%) had viral consecutive infection. Ten of the eleven patients with active infection had a proteinuria relapse (91%) and eight (72.7%) were hospitalized (p = 0.0022). Active HCMV infection was the most frequent infection and was observed in six patients (54.5%), three of the eleven patients (27.2%) had suspected HCMV disease in the gastrointestinal tract, and one had HHV-7 coinfection. The frequency of other infections was: 9% for HHV-6, 45.5% for BKV, 27.3% for HHV-7, 18.2% for EBV, and 18.2% for HAdV. Conclusion: viral infections, especially HCMV, can be an important cause of morbidity and nephrotic syndrome relapse in children.

Pig farming has become a strategically significant and economically important industry across the globe. It is also a potentially vulnerable sector due to challenges posed by transboundary diseases in which viral infections are at the forefront. Among the porcine viral diseases, African swine fever, classical swine fever, foot and mouth disease, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome, pseudorabies, swine influenza, and transmissible gastroenteritis are some of the diseases that cause substantial economic losses in the pig industry. It is a well-established fact that vaccination is undoubtedly the most effective strategy to control viral infections in animals. From the period of Jenner and Pasteur to the recent new-generation technology era, the development of vaccines has contributed significantly to reducing the burden of viral infections on animals and humans. Inactivated and modified live viral vaccines provide partial protection against key pathogens. However, there is a need to improve these vaccines to address emerging infections more comprehensively and ensure their safety. The recent reports on new-generation vaccines against swine viruses like DNA, viral-vector-based replicon, chimeric, peptide, plant-made, virus-like particle, and nanoparticle-based vaccines are very encouraging. The current review gathers comprehensive information on the available vaccines and the future perspectives on porcine viral vaccines.

Viruses are a real threat to every organism at any stage of life leading to extensive infections and casualties. N-heterocycles can affect the viral life cycle at many points, including viral entrance into host cells, viral genome replication, and the production of novel viral species. Certain N-heterocycles can also stimulate the host’s immune system, producing antiviral cytokines and chemokines that can stop the reproduction of viruses. This review focused on recent five- or six-membered synthetic N-heterocyclic molecules showing antiviral activity through SAR analyses. The review will assist in identifying robust scaffolds that might be utilized to create effective antiviral drugs with either no or few side effects.