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Introduction: We designed a novel mitral annuloplasty ring based on healthy human imaging to allow for the mitral valve (MV) annular conformational changes while restricting the anteroposterior (AP) distance. The objectives were to evaluate ex vivo biomechanics of the novel ring and to validate the annular dynamics after ring implantation in vivo. Methods: Cardiac MRI exams were obtained for 3 healthy volunteers. The MV annulus was tracked (Fig. A-C). Based the imaging data, a novel ring was manufactured (Fig. D-F). An ex vivo annular dilation model of mitral regurgitation was used in a left heart simulator (Fig. G, H) to measure hemodynamics and chordal forces at dilated baseline and after repair using the novel, rigid, and flexible rings in 5 porcine MVs. Novel (n = 6) or rigid rings (n = 5) were implanted into male Dorset sheep. Pre- and post-operative cardiac MRI exams were analyzed. Results: Repair using the novel, rigid, and flexible ring reduced regurgitation fraction from 30.0 ± 5.8% at dilated baseline to 4.7 ± 2.7%, 2.4 ± 3.2%, and 17.8 ± 10.0% ( p < .0001, Fig. I-N ). Peak forces on the primary chordae decreased after ring annuloplasty repair ( p < .0001, Fig. O ). The novel ring also showed lower peak forces compared to the rigid ring (p = .03) in secondary chordae ( Fig. P ). MV annular motion was preserved in vivo using the novel ring but restricted to a planar geometry using the rigid ring ( Fig. Q-S ). Annular height to intercommissure ratio at midsystole were similar pre-repair (0.2 ± 0.1) and after novel ring repair (0.2 ± 0.0, p = .89). The variance of AP distance during the cardiac cycle was similar between the novel (0.4 ± 0.3) and rigid ring (0.5 ± 0.1, p = .58). Conclusions: This novel mitral annuloplasty ring demonstrated excellent capability in reducing AP dimension and repairing regurgitation with a superior chordal force profile while facilitating the annular flexible motion. Future studies will focus on evaluating repair durability and effect on left ventricular remodeling.

GDF15 is a cell activation and stress response cytokine of the glial cell line–derived neurotrophic factor family within the TGF-β superfamily. It acts through a recently identified orphan member of the GFRα family called GFRAL and signals through the Ret coreceptor. Cell stress and disease lead to elevated GDF15 serum levels, causing anorexia, weight loss, and alterations to metabolism, largely by actions on regions of the hindbrain. These changes restore homeostasis and, in the case of obesity, cause a reduction in adiposity. In some diseases, such as advanced cancer, serum GDF15 levels can rise by as much as 10–100-fold, leading to an anorexia-cachexia syndrome, which is often fatal. This review discusses how GDF15 regulates appetite and metabolism, the role it plays in resistance to obesity, and how this impacts diseases such as diabetes, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and anorexia-cachexia syndrome. It also discusses potential therapeutic applications of targeting the GDF15-GFRAL pathway and lastly suggests some potential unifying hypotheses for its biological role.

MIC-1/GDF15 is a stress response cytokine and a distant member of the transforming growth factor beta (TGFb) superfamily, with no close relatives. It acts via a recently identified receptor called glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) receptor alpha-like (GFRAL), which is a distant orphan member of the GDNF receptor family that signals through the tyrosine kinase receptor Ret. MIC-1/GDF15 expression and serum levels rise in response to many stimuli that initiate cell stress and as part of a wide variety of disease processes, most prominently cancer and cardiovascular disease. The best documented actions of MIC-1/GDF15 are on regulation of energy homeostasis. When MIC-1/GDF15 serum levels are substantially elevated in diseases like cancer, it subverts a physiological pathway of appetite regulation to induce an anorexia/cachexia syndrome initiated by its actions on hindbrain neurons. These effects make it a potential target for the treatment of both obesity and anorexia/cachexia syndromes, disorders lacking any highly effective, readily accessible therapies.

To test the potential efficacy of recombinant macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1/GDF15) as an obesity therapeutic. Male C57BL/6 J mice, either fed on normal chow or high-fat diet for 16 weeks to induce diet-induced obesity, were infused with either recombinant MIC-1/GDF15 or vehicle for 34 days by osmotic minipump. During the experimental period metabolic parameters were measured. Blood and tissue were collected for analysis of inflammatory markers. MIC-1/GDF15 decreased food intake and body weight of high-fat-fed and chow-fed mice compared with their vehicle-treated control mice. MIC-1/GDF15 reduced body weight, accompanied by greater reduction in fat mass in high-fat-fed mice compared to its effect on chow-fed mice. Further, whilst MIC-1/GDF15-treated chow-fed mice lost lean as well as fat mass, MIC-1/GDF15-treated high-fat-fed mice lost fat mass alone. This reduction in body weight and adiposity was due largely to reduced food intake, but MIC-1/GDF15-treated high-fat-fed mice also displayed increased energy expenditure that may be due to increased thermogenesis. MIC-1/GDF15-treated high-fat-fed mice also had higher circulating level of adiponectin and lower tissue expression, and circulating levels of leptin and inflammatory mediators associated with insulin resistance. Peripheral insulin and glucose intolerance were improved in both MIC-1/GDF15-treated high-fat-fed and chow-fed mice compared to that of their vehicle-treated control mice. MIC-1/GDF15 is highly effective in reducing adiposity and correcting the metabolic dysfunction of mice with high-fat fed. These studies suggest that MIC-1/GDF15 may be a candidate anti-obesity therapeutic.

SummaryBackground Serum macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1/GDF15) concentration has been associated with colonic adenomas and carcinoma. Aims To determine whether circulating MIC-1/GDF15 serum concentrations are higher in the presence of adenomas and whether the level decreases after excision. Methods Patients were recruited prospectively from a single centre and stratified into five groups: no polyps (NP); hyperplastic polyps (HP); sessile serrated ademona (SSA); adenomas (AP); and colorectal carcinoma (CRC). Blood samples were collected immediately before and 4 weeks after colonoscopy. MIC-1/GDF15 serum levels were quantified using ELISA. Results Participants (n=301) were stratified as: NP; n=116 (52%), HP; n=37 (12%), SSA; n=19 (7%), AP; n=68 (23%); and CRC; n=3 (1%). Patients were excluded from the study due to nondiagnostic pathology (n=9, 3%) and exclusion criteria (n=20, 6%). In the 272 remaining subjects (M=149; F=123), age (P=.005), history of colonic polyps (P=.003) and family history of colonic polyps (P=.002) were associated with presence of adenomas. Baseline median MIC-1/GDF15 serum levels increased significantly from NP 609 (460-797) pg/mL, HP 582 (466-852) pg/mL, SSA 561 (446-837) pg/mL to AP 723 (602-1122) pg/mL and CRC 1107 (897-1107) pg/mL; (P

Growth Differentiation Factor-15 (GDF15) is a divergent TGF-beta superfamily cytokine that is overexpressed by most cancers and is induced by anticancer therapy. Transgenic and induced animal models suggest that it protects from cancer development but the mechanisms are uncertain. We investigated the role of immunity in GDF15 induced reduction in prostate cancer (PCa) growth. The C57BL/6 transgenic TRAMP prostate cancer prone mice were bred with mice that were immunodeficient and/or systemically overexpressed GDF15. We developed a novel orthotopic TRAMP PCa model in which primary TRAMP tumor cells were implanted into prostates of mice to reduce the study time. These mice were administered recombinant mouse GDF15, antibody to CD8, PD1 or their respective controls. We found that GDF15 induced protection from tumor growth was reversed by lack of adaptive immunity. Flow cytometric evaluation of lymphocytes within these orthotopic tumors showed that GDF15 overexpression was associated with increased CD8 T cell numbers and an increased number and proportion of recently activated CD8+CD11c+ T cells and a reduced proportion of "exhausted" CD8+PD1+ T cells. Further, depletion of CD8 T cells in tumor bearing mice abolished the GDF15 induced protection from tumor growth. Infusion of GDF15 into mice bearing orthotopic TRAMP tumor, substantially reduced tumor growth that was further reduced by concurrent PD1 antibody administration. GDF15 overexpression or recombinant protein protects from TRAMP tumor growth by modulating CD8 T cell mediated antitumor immunity and augments the positive effects of anti-PD1 blockers.

Intracellular chloride channel protein 1 (CLIC1) participates in inflammatory processes by regulating macrophage phagosomal functions such as pH and proteolysis. Here, we sought to determine if CLIC1 can regulate adaptive immunity by actions on dendritic cells (DCs), the key professional antigen presenting cells. To do this, we first generated bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs) from germline CLIC1 gene-deleted (CLIC1−/−) and wild-type (CLIC1+/+) mice, then studied them in vitro and in vivo. We found phagocytosis triggered cytoplasmic CLIC1 translocation to the phagosomal membrane where it regulated phagosomal pH and proteolysis. Phagosomes from CLIC1−/− BMDCs displayed impaired acidification and proteolysis, which could be reproduced if CLIC1+/+, but not CLIC1−/− cells, were treated with IAA94, a CLIC family ion channel blocker. CLIC1−/− BMDC displayed reduced in vitro antigen processing and presentation of full-length myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) and reduced MOG-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. These data suggest that CLIC1 regulates DC phagosomal pH to ensure optimal processing of antigen for presentation to antigen-specific T-cells. Further, they indicate that CLIC1 is a novel therapeutic target to help reduce the adaptive immune response in autoimmune diseases., Summary: DC phagosomes from CLIC1−/− mice display impaired acidification and in vivo and in vitro antigen processing and presentation, revealing CLIC1−/− as a potential therapeutic target in reducing the adaptive immune response in autoimmune diseases.

To review recent finding on MIC-1/GDF15 and re-evaluate it as a potential target for the therapy of anorexia/cachexia syndromes.MIC-1/GDF15 consistently induces anorexia/cachexia in animal models. Its actions on brainstem feeding centers leads to anorexia, inducing prolonged undernutrition and consequent loss of both lean and fat mass. Epidemiological studies by multiple groups have linked substantially elevated serum levels of this cytokine to anorexia/cachexia syndromes in diverse diseases such as cancer, chronic renal and cardiac failure, and chronic obstructive lung disease. These elevated serum levels are similar to those required to induce this syndrome in animals. Recent identifications of its previously elusive receptor as GFRAL, has enhanced understanding of its biology and suggests that modulating the MIC-1/GDF15-GFRAL pathway may be a therapeutic target for anorexia/cachexia syndrome.Inhibiting MIC-1/GDF15 or its receptor GFRAL are high-value potential targets for treatment of anorexia/cachexia syndrome in patients whose elevated serum levels may justify its use.

Elevated circulating levels of the divergent transforming growth factor-beta (TGFb) family cytokine, growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15), acting through its CNS receptor, glial-derived neurotrophic factor receptor alpha-like (GFRAL), can cause anorexia and weight loss leading to anorexia/cachexia syndrome of cancer and other diseases. Preclinical studies suggest that administration of drugs based on recombinant GDF15 might be used to treat severe obesity. However, the role of the GDF15-GFRAL pathway in the physiological regulation of body weight and metabolism is unclear. The critical site of action of GFRAL in the CNS has also not been proven beyond doubt. To investigate these two aspects, we have inhibited the actions of GDF15 in mice started on high-fat diet (HFD).The actions of GDF15 were inhibited using two methods: (1) Groups of 8 mice under HFD had their endogenous GDF15 neutralised by monoclonal antibody treatment, (2) Groups of 15 mice received AAV-shRNA to knockdown GFRAL at its hypothesised major sites of action, the hindbrain area postrema (AP) and the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS). Metabolic measurements were determined during both experiments.Treating mice with monoclonal antibody to GDF15 shortly after commencing HFD results in more rapid gain of body weight, adiposity and hepatic lipid deposition than the control groups. This is accompanied by reduced glucose and insulin tolerance and greater expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in adipose tissue. Localised AP and NTS shRNA-GFRAL knockdown in mice commencing HFD similarly caused an increase in body weight and adiposity. This effect was in proportion to the effectiveness of GFRAL knockdown, indicated by quantitative analysis of hindbrain GFRAL staining. We conclude that the GDF15-GFRAL axis plays an important role in resistance to obesity in HFD-fed mice and that the major site of action of GDF15 in the CNS is GFRAL-expressing neurons in the AP and NTS.

Anorexia-cachexia associated with cancer and other diseases is a common and often fatal condition representing a large area of unmet medical need. It occurs most commonly in advanced cancer and is probably a consequence of molecules released by tumour cells, or tumour-associated interstitial or immune cells. These may then act directly on muscle to cause atrophy and/or may cause anorexia, which then leads to loss of both fat and lean mass. Although the aetiological triggers for this syndrome are not well characterized, recent data suggest that MIC-1/GDF15, a transforming growth factor-beta superfamily cytokine produced in large amounts by cancer cells and as a part of other disease processes, may be an important trigger. This cytokine acts on feeding centres in the hypothalamus and brainstem to cause anorexia leading to loss of lean and fat mass and eventually cachexia. In animal studies, the circulating concentrations of MIC-1/GDF15 required to cause this syndrome are similar to those seen in patients with advanced cancer, and at least some epidemiological studies support an association between MIC-1/GDF15 serum levels and measures of nutrition. This article will discuss its mechanisms of central appetite regulation, and the available data linking this action to anorexia-cachexia syndromes that suggest it is a potential target for therapy of cancer anorexia-cachexia and conversely may also be useful for the treatment of severe obesity.

Macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1/growth differentiation factor 15 (MIC-1/GDF15) is a divergent transforming growth factor (TGFβ) superfamily cytokine implicated in biological and disease processes including metabolism, cancer, and chronic inflammation, but whose receptor has remained elusive. Four laboratories have recently identified GFRAL, an orphan receptor of the glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) receptor α family, as the receptor for MIC-1/GDF15, signaling though the coreceptor Ret. These data identify a new systemic to central nervous system (CNS) circuit that regulates metabolism in response to stress and which could be targeted to treat both severe obesity and anorexia/cachexia syndrome.

Genome-wide association scans with high-throughput metabolic profiling provide unprecedented insights into how genetic variation influences metabolism and complex disease. Here we report the most comprehensive exploration of genetic loci influencing human metabolism thus far, comprising 7,824 adult individuals from 2 European population studies. We report genome-wide significant associations at 145 metabolic loci and their biochemical connectivity with more than 400 metabolites in human blood. We extensively characterize the resulting in vivo blueprint of metabolism in human blood by integrating it with information on gene expression, heritability and overlap with known loci for complex disorders, inborn errors of metabolism and pharmacological targets. We further developed a database and web-based resources for data mining and results visualization. Our findings provide new insights into the role of inherited variation in blood metabolic diversity and identify potential new opportunities for drug development and for understanding disease.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a devastating neurological disease that predominantly affects young adults resulting in severe personal and economic impact. The majority of therapies for this disease were developed in, or are beneficial in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the animal model of MS. While known to target adaptive anti-CNS immune responses, they also target, the innate immune arm. This mini-review focuses on the role of dendritic cells (DCs), the professional antigen presenting cells of the innate immune system. The evidence for a role for DCs in the appropriate regulation of anti-CNS autoimmune responses and their role in MS disease susceptibility and possible therapeutic utility are discussed. Additionally, the current controversy regarding the evidence for the presence of functional DCs in the normal CNS is reviewed. Furthermore, the role of CNS DCs and potential routes of their intercourse between the CNS and cervical lymph nodes are considered. Finally, the future role that this nexus between the CNS and the cervical lymph nodes might play in site directed molecular and cellular therapy for MS is outlined.

Background Elevated macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1/GDF15) levels in serum mediate anorexia and weight loss in some cancer patients and similarly elevated levels occur in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Serum MIC-1/GDF15 is also elevated in chronic inflammatory diseases and predicts atherosclerotic events independently of traditional risk factors. The relationship between chronic inflammation, decreasing body mass index (BMI) and increased mortality in CKD is not well understood and is being actively investigated. MIC-1/GDF15 may link these features of CKD. Methods Cohorts of incident dialysis patients from Sweden (n = 98) and prevalent hemodialysis patients from the USA (n = 381) had serum MIC-1/GDF15, C-reactive protein (CRP) levels and BMI measured at study entry. Additional surrogate markers of nutritional adequacy, body composition and inflammation were assessed in Swedish patients. Patients were followed for all-cause mortality. Results In the Swedish cohort, serum MIC-1/GDF15 was associated with decreasing BMI, measures of nutrition and markers of oxidative stress and inflammation. Additionally, high serum MIC-1/GDF15 levels identified patients with evidence of protein-energy wasting who died in the first 3 years of dialysis. The ability of serum MIC-1/GDF15 to predict mortality in the first 3 years of dialysis was confirmed in the USA cohort. In both cohorts, serum MIC-1/GDF15 level was an independent marker of mortality when adjusted for age, CRP, BMI, history of diabetes mellitus and/or cardiovascular disease and glomerular filtration rate or length of time on dialysis at study entry. Conclusions MIC-1/GDF15 is a novel independent serum marker of mortality in CKD capable of significantly improving the mortality prediction of other established markers. MIC-1/GDF15 may mediate protein-energy wasting in CKD and represent a novel therapeutic target for this fatal complication.

We evaluated the effects of Ala-7-conantokin-G (Con-G(A7)) and ifenprodil on the modulation by spermine of [H-3]MK801 binding to human cortical membranes. Human cortical tissue was obtained at autopsy and stored at -80 degreesC until assay. Both Con-GA7 and ifenprodil inhibited [H-3]MK801 binding, but spermine affected these inhibitions differently. Con-G(A7) IC50 changed little with spermine concentration, indicative of a non-competitive interaction, whereas the rightward shift in ifenprodil IC50 with increasing spermine concentration suggested partial competition. When the two agents were tested against the biphasic activation of [H-3]MK801 binding by spermine, they again differed in their effects. In the activation phase Con-G(A7) was a non-competitive inhibitor of spermine activation, and may even enhance the spermine EC50, while the ifenprodil data indicated a partially competitive interaction. Both agents were non-competitive in the inhibitory phase. Overall, the data suggest that Con-G(A7) and ifenprodil interact differently with the polyamine modulation of the glutamate-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. (C) 2004 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1), also known as growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15), is a stress response cytokine. MIC-1/GDF15 is secreted into the cerebrospinal fluid and increased levels of MIC-1/GDF15 are associated with a variety of diseases including cognitive decline. Furthermore, Mic-1/Gdf15 knockout mice (Mic-1 KO) weigh more, have increased adiposity, associated with increased spontaneous food intake, and exhibit reduced basal energy expenditure and physical activity. The current study was designed to comprehensively determine the role of MIC-1/GDF15 on behavioural domains of male and female knockout mice including locomotion, exploration, anxiety, cognition, social behaviours, and sensorimotor gating. Mic-1 KO mice exhibited a task-dependent increase in locomotion and exploration and reduced anxiety-related behaviours across tests. Spatial working memory and social behaviours were not affected by Mic-1/Gdf15 deficiency. Interestingly, knockout mice formed an increased association with the conditioned stimulus in fear conditioning testing and also displayed significantly improved prepulse inhibition. Overall sex effects were evident for social behaviours, fear conditioning, and sensorimotor gating. This is the first study defining the role of Mic-1/Gdf15 in a number of behavioural domains. Whether the observed impact is based on direct actions of Mic-1/Gdf15 deficiency on the CNS or whether the behavioural effects are mediated by indirect actions on e.g. other neurotransmitter systems must be clarified in future studies.

Macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1/GDF15) modulates food intake and body weight under physiological and pathological conditions by acting on the hypothalamus and brainstem. When overexpressed in disease, such as in advanced cancer, elevated serum MIC-1/GDF15 levels lead to an anorexia/cachexia syndrome. To gain a better understanding of its actions in the brainstem we studied MIC-1/GDF15 induced neuronal activation identified by induction of Fos protein. Intraperitoneal injection of human MIC-1/GDF15 in mice activated brainstem neurons in the area postrema (AP) and the medial (m) portion of the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), which did not stain with tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). To determine the importance of these brainstem nuclei in the anorexigenic effect of MIC-1/GDF15, we ablated the AP alone or the AP and the NTS. The latter combined lesion completely reversed the anorexigenic effects of MIC-1/GDF15. Altogether, this study identified neurons in the AP and/or NTS, as being critical for the regulation of food intake and body weight by MIC-1/GDF15.

Ambient particle concentration was taken on the traffic sampling site over the Chung-Chi Road over bridge (CCROB) in front of Hungkuang Institute of Technology (HKIT). The sampling time was from August 1999 to December 1999. During the sampling period, Taiwan's biggest earthquake in more than a century registered 7.3 on the Richter scale (Taiwan Chi-Chi Earthquake). Besides, there were more than 20,000 aftershocks that followed the Taiwan Chi-Chi Earthquake within three months. Thus, the PM2.5, PM(2.5-10) particle concentrations were also collected then and compared with total suspended particle (TSP) in this study. The average PM(2.5-10), PM2.5 and TSP concentrations are 24.6, 58.0 and 106 microg/m3, respectively, after the Taiwan Chi-Chi Earthquake. The average TSP concentrations before and after Taiwan Chi-Chi Earthquake were 70 and 127 microg/m3, respectively. It is clearly shown that the average concentration of TSP after Taiwan Chi-Chi Earthquake was about 1.8 times as that of TSP concentration before Taiwan Chi-Chi Earthquake in the traffic site of central Taiwan. And the ratios of PM2.5/PM(2.5-10), PM2.5/PM10 and PM2.5/TSP are 2.2%, 67.2%, 38.9%, respectively. The results also indicated about Chi-Chi fine particle concentration (PM25) and the TSP increases in the traffic site of central Taiwan after Taiwan Chi-Chi Earthquake.

Aerosol samples for PM2.5, PM2.5–10 and TSP were collected from June to September 1998 and from February to March 1999 in central Taiwan. Ion chromatography was used to analyze the acidic anions: sulfate, nitrate and chloride in the Universal samples. The ratios of fine particle concentrations to coarse particle concentrations displayed that the fine particle concentrations are almost greater than that of coarse particle concentrations in Taichung area. The average concentrations of PM2.5, PM2.5–10 and TSP in urban sites are higher than in suburban and rural sites at both daytime and night-time. Chloride dominated in the coarse mode in daytime and in fine mode in night-time. Nitrate can be found in both the coarse and fine modes. Sulfate dominated in fine mode in both daytime and night-time.

Daily average concentrations of fine and coarse particulates, and TSP samples have been measured simultaneously at daytime and night-time periods by using Universal and PS-1 sampler in a suburban area of central Taiwan from June to August 1998. The samples were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry to determine the fine and coarse particulate concentrations of metallic elements (Ca, Fe, Mn, Pb, Cu, Zn and Cr). The concentration of PM2.5 and TSP showed a decreased trend for the daytime period. The fine particle concentrations were about two times as that of coarse particulate concentrations. The averaged fine particulate concentrations at daytime are higher than at night-time. Ca and Fe were mostly in the coarse particulate mode. The correlation coefficients were 0.63 and 0.69 for elements Ca and Fe in the coarse particle mode for day and night periods. Pb showed a similar distribution ratio with Mn for the fine to coarse particle ratios at both day and night period. Pb and Mn are highly correlated for the day (R = 0.78) and night period (R = 0.61) at particle size2.5 microm. Cu and Zn were mainly in fine particles at both day and night period. Fe and Ca consist of the major parts of all the elements. Elemental Mn is the lowest among the rest of the heavy metals.

Daily PM2.5, PM2.5–10 and TSP have been collected by Universal and PS‐1 sampler simultaneously at a site within Taichung between February and March 1999. The filters were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry for the elemental analysis of Ca, Fe, Mn, Pb, Cu, Zn and Cr. In general, the concentration of these metallic elements are higher in fine particles than in coarse particles. On average, PM10 accounted for 67% of the TSP at daytime, while at nighttime PM10 accounted for only 44% of the TSP. For PM2.5, PM2.5–10 and TSP concentrations, there were no significant differences between day and night period. The averaged concentrations of metallic elements in PM2.5 at daytime were all higher than that at nighttime. Ca, Fe and Zn have large and variable PM2.5 concentrations at both daytime and nighttime. For the daytime Zn and Pb account for the largest portion of the heavy metal elements. For the nighttime, Zn and Cr make the largest portion of the heavy metal elements. The concentrations of Mn were ...

In the CNS, no pathway dedicated to immune surveillance has been characterized for preventing the anti-CNS immune responses that develop in autoimmune neuroinflammatory disease. Here, we identified a pathway for immune cells to traffic from the brain that is associated with the rostral migratory stream (RMS), which is a forebrain source of newly generated neurons. Evaluation of fluorescently labeled leukocyte migration in mice revealed that DCs travel via the RMS from the CNS to the cervical LNs (CxLNs), where they present antigen to T cells. Pharmacologic interruption of immune cell traffic with the mononuclear cell-sequestering drug fingolimod influenced anti-CNS T cell responses in the CxLNs and modulated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) severity in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis (MS). Fingolimod treatment also induced EAE in a disease-resistant transgenic mouse strain by altering DC-mediated Treg functions in CxLNs and disrupting CNS immune tolerance. These data describe an immune cell pathway that originates in the CNS and is capable of dampening anti-CNS immune responses in the periphery. Furthermore, these data provide insight into how fingolimod treatment might exacerbate CNS neuroinflammation in some cases and suggest that focal therapeutic interventions, outside the CNS have the potential to selectively modify anti-CNS immunity.

Anorexia/cachexia is a common and currently mostly untreatable complication of advanced cancer. It is also a feature of a number of chronic diseases and can also occur as part of the normal ageing process. Over recent years, two different, but sometimes overlapping, processes have been identified to mediate anorexia/cachexia: those that act primarily on muscle reducing its mass and function, and processes that decrease nutrition leading to loss of both fat and muscle. In the case of at least some cancers, the latter process is sometimes driven by marked overexpression of macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1/growth differentiation factor 15 (MIC-1/GDF15). MIC-1/GDF15 is a transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) family cytokine that is found in the serum of all normal individuals at an average concentration of about 0.6 ng/ml. Its increased expression in both cancers and other diseases can result in 10–100-fold or more elevation of its serum levels. In experimental animals, serum MIC-1/GDF15 levels at the lower end of this range induce anorexia by direct actions of the circulating cytokine on feeding centres in the brain. Mice with tumours overexpressing MIC-1/GDF15 display decreased food intake, loss of lean and fat mass and cachexia. That this process also mediates anorexia/cachexia in humans is suggested by the fact that there is a direct correlation between the degree of serum MIC-1/GDF15 elevation and the amount of cancer-related weight loss, the first such relationship demonstrated. Further, in experimental animals, weight loss can be reversed by neutralisation of tumour-produced MIC-1/GDF15 with a specific monoclonal antibody, suggesting the possibility of effective therapy of patients with the devastating complication of anorexia/cachexia.

Macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1/GDF15), a divergent member of the TGF-β superfamily, is over-expressed by many common cancers including those of the prostate (PCa) and its expression is linked to cancer outcome. We have evaluated the effect of MIC-1/GDF15 overexpression on PCa development and spread in the TRAMP transgenic model of spontaneous prostate cancer. TRAMP mice were crossed with MIC-1/GDF15 overexpressing mice (MIC-1(fms)) to produce syngeneic TRAMP(fmsmic-1) mice. Survival rate, prostate tumor size, histopathological grades and extent of distant organ metastases were compared. Metastasis of TC1-T5, an androgen independent TRAMP cell line that lacks MIC-1/GDF15 expression, was compared by injecting intravenously into MIC-1(fms) and syngeneic C57BL/6 mice. Whilst TRAMP(fmsmic-1) survived on average 7.4 weeks longer, had significantly smaller genitourinary (GU) tumors and lower PCa histopathological grades than TRAMP mice, more of these mice developed distant organ metastases. Additionally, a higher number of TC1-T5 lung tumor colonies were observed in MIC-1(fms) mice than syngeneic WT C57BL/6 mice. Our studies strongly suggest that MIC-1/GDF15 has complex actions on tumor behavior: it limits local tumor growth but may with advancing disease, promote metastases. As MIC-1/GDF15 is induced by all cancer treatments and metastasis is the major cause of cancer treatment failure and cancer deaths, these results, if applicable to humans, may have a direct impact on patient care.

CCAAT enhancer binding protein-delta (C/EBPδ) is a transcription factor that regulates inflammatory processes mediating bystander neuronal injury and CNS autoimmune inflammatory disease. The mechanism of the involvement of C/EBPδ in these processes remains to be determined. Here, we examined the cellular source(s) and mechanisms by which C/EBPδ may be involved in an animal model of multiple sclerosis. Mice deficient in C/EBPδ expression exhibited less severe clinical disease than wild-type littermates in response to induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) by vaccination with a myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) fragment. This reduction in EAE severity was associated with a significant alteration in the complement of major CNS T-helper (Th) cell subtypes throughout disease, manifest as reduced ratios of Th17 cells to regulatory T-cells (Tregs). Studies in bone marrow chimeric mice indicated that C/EBPδ expression by peripherally derived immune cells mediates C/EBPδ involvement in EAE. Follow upin vitroandin vivoexamination of dendritic cell (DC) mediated Th-cell development suggests that C/EBPδ suppresses DC expression of interleukin-10 (IL-10), favoring Th17 over Treg development.In vitroandin vivoblockade of IL-10 signaling attenuated the effect of reduced C/EBPδ expression by DCs on Th17:Treg ratios. These findings identify C/EBPδ as an important DC transcription factor in CNS autoimmune inflammatory disease by virtue of its capacity to alter the Th17:Treg balance in an IL-10 dependent fashion.

Macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1/GDF15) is associated with cardiovascular disease, inflammation, body weight regulation and cancer. Its serum levels facilitate the diagnosis and prognosis of cancer and vascular disease. Furthermore, its serum levels are a powerful predictor of all-cause mortality, suggesting a fundamental role in biological processes associated with ageing. In cancer, the data available suggest that MIC-1/GDF15 is antitumorigenic, but this may not always be the case as disease progresses. Cancer promoting effects of MIC-1/GDF15 may be due, in part, to effects on antitumour immunity. This is suggested by the anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties of MIC-1/GDF15 in animal models of atherosclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis. Furthermore, in late-stage cancer, large amounts of MIC-1/GDF15 in the circulation suppress appetite and mediate cancer anorexia/cachexia, which can be reversed by monoclonal antibodies in animals. Available data suggest MIC-1/GDF15 may be an important molecule mediating the interplay between cancer, obesity and chronic inflammation.