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A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the circulation and risk factors associated with West Nile virus (WNV) exposure in equine and wild bird populations following the largest epidemic outbreak ever reported in Spain. A total of 305 equids and 171 wild birds were sampled between November 2020 and June 2021. IgG antibodies against flaviviruses were detected by blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (bELISA) in 44.9% (109/243) and 87.1% (54/62) of unvaccinated and vaccinated equids, respectively. The individual seroprevalence in unvaccinated individuals (calculated on animals seropositive by both bELISA and virus microneutralization test [VNT]) was 38.3% (95%CI: 33.1-43.4). No IgM antibodies were detected in animals tested (0/243; 0.0%; 95%CI: 0.0-1.5) by capture-ELISA. The main risk factors associated with WNV exposure in equids were age (adult and geriatric), breed (crossbred) and the absence of a disinsection programme on the facilities. In wild birds, IgG antibodies against flaviviruses were found in 32.7% (56/171; 95%CI: 26.8-38.6) using bELISA, giving an individual WNV seroprevalence of 19.3% (95%CI: 14.3-24.3) after VNT. Seropositivity was found in 37.8% of the 37 species analysed. Species group (raptors), age (1-year old) and size (large) were the main risk factors related to WNV seropositivity in wild birds. Our results indicate high exposure and widespread distribution of WNV in equid and wild bird populations in Spain after the epidemic outbreak in 2020. The present study highlights the need to continue and improve active surveillance programmes for the detection of WNV in Spain, particularly in those areas at greatest risk of virus circulation.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a multi-host infectious disease caused by members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC). In Mediterranean ecosystems, where multiple animal hosts of TB are present, identifying the role of the different species involved in the epidemiology of TB is a key point to be able to implement proper control measures. Sheep are susceptible to MTC infection but have traditionally been considered a spillover host. However, the occurrence of outbreaks involving sheep in recent years evidences the need to better understand the role of this small ruminant species in the epidemiology of the disease. Here, we aimed to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with MTC seropositivity in sheep in Andalusia (southern Spain), a region with one of the highest prevalence of MTC infection in both cattle and wild ungulates. A total of 2266 sheep from 83 flocks were tested for antibodies against MTC using an in-house indirect ELISA. Anti-MTC antibodies were detected in 16 (0.7%) of the 2266 sheep (adjusted true prevalence 0.29%, 95% posterior probability interval 0.01–1.05). Seropositivity was found in 14.5% (12/83; 95%CI: 6.9–22.0) of the sheep farms analyzed. A semi-extensive management system was identified as a risk factor associated with MTC seropositivity in sheep farms (OR = 3.7; p < 0.038; 95%CI: 1.1–12.4) in the study area. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first active TB surveillance study carried out to assess MTC exposure in sheep. Our results indicate MTC circulation in sheep farms in southern Spain. However, the low individual seroprevalence obtained suggests that sheep may play a limited role in the epidemiology of TB in this region. Serosurveillance programs could be a valuable tool to detect MTC circulation in sheep in risk scenarios or target farms, in order to optimize control measures on TB animal in multi-host Mediterranean ecosystems. This study was partially funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) research grant (AGL2013-49159-C2-2-R). This research was also supported by CIBER -Consorcio Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red- (CB 2021), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación and Unión Europea – NextGenerationEUD. D. Jiménez-Martín holds a PhD contract granted by Own Research Plan of the University of Córdoba. Funding for open access charge: Universidad de Córdoba / CBUA. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Paratuberculosis is a worldwide, chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) that mainly affects ruminant species. This disease has a significant economic impact on small ruminant production due to the costs of implementing control measures and production losses. A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the seroprevalence, spatial distribution and risk factors associated with MAP exposure in sheep and goats in Andalusia (southern Spain). Serum samples from 4134 small ruminants (2266 sheep and 1868 goats) in 153 flocks were tested by an in-house ELISA for antibodies against MAP using paratuberculosis protoplasmic antigen 3 (PPA3) as coating antigen. Antibodies against MAP were detected in 8.1% (183/2266; 95% CI: 7.0–9.2%) of sheep and 20.0% (374/1868; 95% CI: 18.2–21.8%) of goats. The true individual seroprevalence was 8.4% (95% CI: 6.9–10.1%) in sheep and 25.2% (95% CI: 22.7–27.8%) in goats. Seropositivity was detected in 66.3% (55/83; 95% CI: 56.1–76.4%) of sheep herds and 90.0% (63/70; 95% CI: 83.0–97.0%) of goat herds. Spatial analysis identified three statistically significant clusters (p < 0.05) associated with areas with higher seroprevalence of MAP. The main risk factors potentially associated with MAP exposure were: species (goat) and absence of perimeter livestock fencing. The results of this study show that MAP is widespread in small ruminant populations in southern Spain and suggest that goats may play a more important role than sheep in the transmission and maintenance of MAP. Because of animal health concerns and the economic consequences of paratuberculosis, appropriate surveillance and control programs are required to reduce the risk of MAP infections in small ruminant flocks in this country., This study was partially funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) research grant (AGL2013-49159-C2-2-R). This research was also supported by CIBER -Consorcio Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red- (CB 2021), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación and Unión Europea – NextGenerationEU. D. Jiménez-Martín holds a Ph.D. contract granted by Own Research Plan of the University of Cordoba., Funding for open access charge: Universidad de Córdoba / CBUA.

Background Identifying pig farms infected with hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a key aspect to implement surveillance programmes for this emerging zoonotic agent. Detection of HEV in blood has several drawbacks, including animal handling, economic costs and animal stress. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a non-invasive screening approach for determining the HEV status of pig farms under different management systems. Methods Forty stool samples randomly collected from the pen floor of 17 intensive pig farms and the yard of nine extensive ones were tested for HEV RNA. The invasive method used to confirm the HEV status of the farm was HEV RNA analysis of serum samples randomly collected from 40 animals on each farm. Results Twenty-one HEV-positive farms were detected by invasive and non-invasive methods. No positive serum or stool samples were detected on five intensive farms. A high intertest agreement (K=1; P Conclusion This non-invasive screening approach could be reliably applied in a large-scale surveillance programme for determining the HEV status of pig farms under different management systems.

Pigs are considered important reservoirs of HEV and so constitute a major risk of transmission to humans, either via direct contact or by consuming raw or undercooked contaminated pork products. Once the scale of this disease on European pig farms has been estimated, the identification of risk factors associated with HEV infection in these species could help determine contingency strategies to minimize the risk of transmission to humans. Our objective was to evaluate risk factors associated with HEV in pigs under different production systems. We included 1040 pigs from 26 farms. The prevalence of HEV infection in the study population, evaluated by RT-qPCR, was calculated, then studied according to animal and farm characteristics. Factors associated with HEV infection were analyzed by multivariate analysis. One hundred and seventy-two pigs were infected by HEV, which gave an individual prevalence of 16.5% (95% CI: 14.4%–18.9%). Factors associated with higher prevalence of HEV infection were: extensive farming [23.9%; OR = 2.239 (1.036–4.837)], absence of sanitary ford [33.8%; OR = 3.597 (1.649–7.850)], no quarantine period [20.8%; OR = 2.723 (1.450–5.112)], and contact with domestic species [24.5%; OR = 3.893 (1.453–10.431)]. Our evidence showed that pigs reared on extensive farms are at a higher risk of HEV infection than those reared intensively. The use of control measures could reduce the risk of HEV infection in pigs and minimize the risk of zoonotic transmission.

The role of domestic pigs in the epidemiology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) is considered to be limited due to the characteristics of intensive production systems. However, in southwestern Spain, Iberian pigs are usually raised under extensive management systems, sharing their habitat with other domestic and wild species, some of which may act as reservoirs of MTC. Our objective was to determine the seroprevalence, risk factors, spatial distribution and spoligotypes of MTC circulating in extensively farmed pigs in Andalusia (southern Spain), a region with a high prevalence of tuberculosis in both cattle and wild boar populations. Serum samples from 3622 extensively-raised Iberian pigs from 129 randomly selected farms were tested for antibodies against MTC using an indirect (P22) ELISA. Antibodies to MTC were detected in 82 pigs (2.3%; 95%CI: 1.8–2.8%). Seropositivity was significantly higher in sows (3.7%) than in fattening pigs (1.7%) (P = 0.0001). Herd prevalence was 24.8% (95%CI: 17.4–32.3%). Two risk factors were associated with MTC seropositivity on farms: herd size (higher seroprevalence on larger farms) (OR=1.001; 95%CI: 1.000–1.002), and the presence of neighboring goat flocks (OR = 7.345; 95%CI: 1.464–36.848). Two statistically significant spatial clusters (P < 0.001) were identified in the north-west of Andalusia. A total of 25 different MTC spoligotypes were isolated in pigs bred extensively in the study area. Based on the serological and molecular results obtained in the current study, it is possible that extensively raised Iberian pigs may act as an MTC reservoir in Mediterranean ecosystems. The high herd prevalence, as well as the identification of significant spatial clusters, indicates widespread, but not homogenous MTC circulation among extensively-managed pig farms. Risk-based surveillance and control programs should be implemented on this type of farms in Spain., The present work was partially funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) research grant Ref. AGL2013-49159-C2-2-R. D. Cano-Terriza holds a FPU pre-doctoral scholarship (FPU14/00842) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

West Nile virus (WNV) is recognized as an emerging zoonotic pathogen, whose incidence in horses, humans and birds has increased significantly in different European countries in the last decade. A serosurvey study was carried out in non vaccinated horses to determine the geographical distribution of WNV in Andalusia (Southern Spain), and to assess the factors that influence the risk of WNV infection in horses. Antibodies to WNV were detected in 54 out of 510 horses analyzed by a blocking ELISA, of which 36 were confirmed by micro virus neutralization test (7.1%; CI(95%): 4.9-9.3). A total of 28 out of the 348 equine herds (8.3%; CI(95%): 5.4-11.2) had at least one seropositive animal. A generalized estimating equations model showed that the main risk factors associated to WNV seroprevalence were: number of horses within the holding (low), transport of the horse within the last six months (Yes) and presence of mosquitoes in the holding (Yes). The results demonstrated that WNV circulation in Andalusia was more widespread than previously reported. Besides, the distribution of WNV infections was not homogeneous as significant differences among provinces were observed. The results show the need to improve the active surveillance in Spain, so that the early detection of WNV circulation allows the establishment control measures such as vaccination and implementation of vector control programs during the risk period.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-transmitted flavivirus recognized as an emerging and re-emerging pathogen in different countries. This study describes the monitoring of the first WNV epidemic in Spain between 2010 and 2011. Between September and December 2010, 36 outbreaks of WNV in horses were reported in three different provinces of Andalusia (southern Spain), with no apparent spread outside this area. The temporal distribution and the clinical signs observed during the WNV epidemic in Spain were, in general, similar to those reported in Europe and in the Mediterranean Basin. Morbidity, mortality and fatality rate in the affected herds were 4.6, 1.4 and 35.3%, respectively. Thirty-six of 75 (47.4%) suspected herds investigated presented at least one IgM seropositive animal. The individual seroprevalence in unvaccinated animals from the infected holdings was 51.7%. RNA WNV lineage 1 virus was confirmed from blood and cerebrospinal fluid samples in a lethally infected horse. The entomological survey showed that the most abundant mosquito species detected in the affected area was Culex pipiens. A cross-sectional study was carried out in non-suspected herds between April 2010 and February 2011 in the affected area. The individual seroprevalence was 11.0%, and six of the 38 herds sampled (15.8%) presented at least one seropositive animal. The results showed active WNV circulation several months before the first outbreak was reported in horses. The seropositivity found in municipalities where clinical cases were not reported indicates a higher geographical dissemination of the virus. Significantly higher seroprevalences were detected in areas close to Morocco. Furthermore, 90 wild ruminants were tested for the presence of antibodies against WNV, but the results were all negative.

TO THE EDITOR: West Nile virus (WNV) is a member of the genus Flavivirus within the Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex. The enzootic virus cycle involves transmission between avian hosts and ornithophilic mosquitoes, whereas humans and horses are considered dead-end hosts. Given the recent increase of WNV infection in humans and horses in Europe, concern has been raised regarding public and animal health.