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In order to obtain a better knowledge of past oceanographic variability offshore southern Chile, this study reappraises the changes in the sources of nutrients over the last 25 ka based on a detailed comparison of previously published nitrogen isotope and microfossil records (dino?agellate cysts, coccoliths and diatoms) from ODP Site 1233 (41°S). Our ?ndings support the main conclusions of Martinez et al. (2006) in the sense that both the Subantarctic Surface Water and the Gunther Undercurrent are potential sources for the recorded late Quaternary sedimentary d15N signatures at Site 1233, with variable contributions of both sources during different time periods. This study indicates that Subantarctic Surface Water forms the main source for nutrients during the last glacial maximum (25–18.6 cal ka BP), the ?rst part of the deglaciation (18.6–15.7 cal ka BP) and the Holocene (9.8 cal ka BP until present). An increased contribution of Equatorial Subsurface Water as a source of nutrients to the photic zone offshore southern Chile is observed between 14.4 and 9.8 cal ka BP, which is indicative for upwelling conditions at least after 13.2 cal ka BP as indicated by the microfossil data

The study investigates the morphological variability of the dinoflagellate cyst Operculodinium centrocarpum (resting cyst of Protoceratium reticulatum) in core-top samples distributed over the Southern Hemisphere and the tropics in relation to sea-surface temperature (SST) and sea-surface salinity (SSS) at the corresponding sites. The process lengths show a moderate inverse relationship to summer SST (sSST) (R²=0.44) and sSSS/sSST (R²=0.4), however, lateral transport of cysts probably produced noise in the plots. After excluding tropical and Southern Hemisphere sites considered to have been affected by long distance lateral transport, the relationship between process length and density follows the equation sD=0.8422x+1016.9 (R²=0.55) with a Root Mean Square Error=0.63 kg m-3, while the negative correlation with sSST increases up to R²=0.79. Next to salinity, this study thus highlights the importance of a second factor, temperature, affecting process length in the topics and the Southern Hemisphere oceans.

Reconstruction of salinity in the Holocene Black Sea has been an ongoing debate over the past four decades. Here we calibrate summer surface water salinity in the Black Sea, Sea of Azov and Caspian Sea with the process length of the dinoflagellate cyst Lingulodinium machaerophorum. We then apply this calibration to make a regional reconstruction of paleosalinity in the Black Sea, calculated by averaging out process length variation observed at four core sites from the Black Sea with high sedimentation rates and dated by multiple mollusk shell ages. Results show a very gradual change of salinity from ~14 ± 0.91 psu around 9.9 cal ka BP to a minimum ~12.3 ± 0.91 psu around 8.5 cal ka BP, reaching current salinities of ~17.1 ± 0.91 psu around 4.1 cal ka BP. The resolution of our sampling is about 250 years, and it fails to reveal a catastrophic salinization event at ~9.14 cal ka BP advocated by other researchers. The dinoflagellate cyst salinity-proxy does not record large Holocene salinity fluctuations, and after early Holocene freshening, it shows correspondence to the regional sea-level curve of Brückner et al. (2010) derived from Balabanov (2007).

The necessity to predict future climate change has never been greater than today. However, in order to validate climate models and to make accurate predictions, a good comprehension of past climate dynamics is a prerequisite. Since the basic patterns of past climate change are yet not fully understood, fundamental research remains a necessity to elucidate the timing and the extension of pronounced climatic events. Until recently, most palaeoclimatological studies concentrated on the northern hemisphere since the North Atlantic deep water formation was considered as the main mechanism regulating millennial-scale climate variability. In 2003, several authors however demonstrated that the Southern Ocean could have played a prominent role in global climate regulation. This statement led to a gradual increase in the number of palaeoclimatological studies in the southern hemisphere. Other scientists pointed to the importance of tropical circulations, such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation, in controlling glacial/interglacial transitions. There is still controversy about the impact and the extent of major high-latitude climate reversals such as the northern hemisphere Younger Dryas and the southern hemisphere Antarctic Cold Reversal. Particularly, the extent to which the southern hemisphere high-latitude ocean-atmosphere dynamics determine the southern South American climate, caused by shifts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) and southern westerly wind (SWW) belt, is still a matter of debate. A late Quaternary palaeoenvironmental reconstruction using dinoflagellate cysts and organic geochemical proxies was carried out at ODP Site 1233 (41°0’S, 74°27’W) in the Southeast Pacific, and allowed a better insight into the late Quaternary climate dynamics, i.e., temperature variations, latitudinal shifts of the ACC/SWW-coupled system, changes in the supply of nutrients, etc. Additionally, studies were carried out to improve and to refine environmental proxies such as the process length variation of Operculodinium centrocarpum as a density proxy, the knowledge of ecological preferences of certain dinoflagellate cyst species and the TEX86 index as a temperature proxy. These proxies subsequently allowed a more detailed reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment at Site 1233 during the last 25 kyr. Our study demonstrates that dinoflagellate cyst assemblages cannot be used unambiguously to quantify past variations in a particular environmental parameter, such as sea surface salinity and sea surface temperature. Assemblage compositions are controlled by an interplay between multiple environmental variables, which render it difficult to separate the unique effects of diverse environmental factors in altering the cyst compositions. However, the presence of particular species may point to specific oceanographic dynamics, such as the presence or absence of upwelling. In contrast, the process length variability of the dinoflagellate cyst Operculodinium centrocarpum can be used to quantify past changes in sea surface density, as long as the average process lengths do not exceed 10.5 µm. The reason for this limitation is the absence of modern analogues in high density environments of more than 1,026 kg m-3. The productivity variations of dinoflagellates, which are dominated by heterotrophic species, at Site 1233 are regulated by their prey availability, mainly diatoms, which in turn are dependent on nutrient availability. Our data suggests that nitrate availability is the limiting factor regulating productivity variations offshore South Chile, while iron fertilisation negatively affects the silica/nitrate consumption rates of diatoms leading to a decrease in productivity because of nitrate depletion. The TEX86 palaeothermometer down-core ODP 1233 is often interrupted by the enrichment of 13C-depleted isoprenoidal glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether (GDGT)-1 and GDGT-2, mainly produced by methane-consuming Archaea during anaerobic oxidation of methane. Other deviations with respect to the alkenone-based sea surface temperature record are the result of variable growing seasons of pelagic Thaumarchaeota, caused by variations in primary productivity. The terrestrial supply of isoprenoidal GDGTs in turn was too low to bias the TEX86 signal as indicated by the BIT index. The latter demonstrates that the variable supply of soil organic matter towards Site 1233 is related to Patagonian ice sheet dynamics and not to variations in onshore precipitation. Our findings indicate a 6 to 7° northward shift of the ACC/SWW-coupled system during the Last Glacial Maximum (25-18.6 cal ka BP). Upwelling was prevented by the onshore blowing westerlies, and macro-nutrients were therefore supplied from the Southern Ocean by cross-frontal northward advection of Subantarctic Surface Water. A slight poleward shift of the ACC/SWW occurred around 21.3 cal ka BP, followed by a partial return between 20 and 18.6 cal ka BP. At the same time, the Patagonian ice sheet gradually extended towards the end of the Last Glacial Maximum. A two step warming phase during the last deglaciation has been observed. At 18.6 cal ka BP, the ACC/SWW started to migrate towards Antarctica as the result of a global reorganisation of atmospheric circulations related to a northern hemisphere cooling event. Together with a weakening of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), this resulted in a fast rise in SST (4 °C) in the SE-Pacific mid-latitudes. A southward shift of the ACC caused a decrease in nutrient availability at Site 1233, which subsequently became even more diluted after 17.8 cal ka BP by a large fresh water input related with a first melting phase of the Patagonian ice sheet. The Antarctic Cold Reversal period (14.4-12.9 cal ka BP) is characterised by unstable conditions and/or extreme seasonality caused by the vicinity of the Subtropical Front. The ACC/SWW did not considerably shift equatorward in response to a northern hemisphere warming and a stronger AMOC. Deep mixing (=100 m) may have occurred, associated with a strengthening of the westerlies at 41°S. At the same time, the Patagonian glaciers stabilised or slightly readvanced. The second warming phase of ~2 °C between 12.9-11.1 cal ka BP coincides with the northern hemisphere Younger Dryas and with a weakening of the AMOC. The latter induced a global atmospheric reorganisation, and caused a southward shift of the ACC/SWW. The Subtropical Front and the northern margin of the SWW during summer were now located southward of the study area. Upwelling of nutrient-rich subsurface water occurred during austral summer, but nutrients were diluted by a second fresh water input associated with melting glaciers onshore and by a decrease of the silica:nitrate uptake ratio by diatoms caused by iron fertilisation. The Holocene climatic optimum is observed between 11.6 and 9.8 cal ka BP, and is characterised by the most southward position of the ACC/SWW. The upwelling continued, and the nutrient availability in the surface waters increased caused by a decrease in fresh water supply. At the same time, nitrate was less intensively consumed because of a decline in iron input. The intensification of the AMOC resulted in a cooling of the southern hemisphere and a northward shift of the ACC/SWW between 9.8 and 7 cal ka BP. No upwelling occurred during this period and the westerlies were probably more intense because of the Antarctic sea ice extension and the occurrence of La Niña-like conditions. During the midto late Holocene (7 cal ka BP to present), the AMOC remained fairly constant, such that latitudinal shifts of the ACC/ SWW are mainly regulated by the Antarctic sea ice extension and the variability of tropical circulations, such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation and Hadley Cell. The effects of those tropical circulations on the strength and position of the southeastern Pacific anticyclone and the SWW lead to a variable sea surface density at Site 1233. The latitudinal shifts of the SWW furthermore controlled upwelling intensity at 41°S; seasonal upwelling occurred during dry periods while no indications for upwelling are observed during wet periods. The northward shift of the ACC during the Holocene made that the Subtropical Front was again located equatorward of 41°S after 5.4 cal ka BP. A fast northward shift of the ACC/SWW occurred between 0.8 cal ka BP and present, and was most likely related to a cooling on Antarctica. Our results demonstrate that climate variability in the Southeast Pacific mid-latitudes during the last 25 kyr is closely coupled to global atmospheric and oceanographic reorganisations. Both the northern and southern hemisphere high-latitudes play a crucial role in regulating millennial-scale climate variability, while the effects of variable tropical circulations seem to superimpose on the large scale fluctuations controlled by (sub)polar dynamics.

There is still controversy about the impact and the extent of major high-latitude climate reversals such as the northern hemisphere Younger Dryas and the southern hemisphere Antarctic Cold Reversal. Particularly, the extent to which the southern hemisphere high-latitude ocean atmosphere dynamics determine the southern South American climate, caused by shifts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) and southern westerly wind (SWW) belt, is still a matter of debate. A late Quaternary palaeoenvironmental reconstruction using dinoflagellate cysts and organic geochemical proxies was carried out at ODP Site 1233 (41°0’S, 74°27’W) in the Southeast Pacific, and allowed a better insight into the late Quaternary climate dynamics, i.e., temperature variations, latitudinal shifts of the ACC/SWW-coupled system, changes in the supply of nutrients, etc. Additionally, studies were carried out to improve and to refine environmental proxies such as the process length variation of Operculodinium centrocarpum as a density proxy, the knowledge of ecological preferences of certain dinoflagellate cyst species and the TEX86 index as a temperature proxy. These proxies subsequently allowed a more detailed reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment at Site 1233 during the last 25 kyr.Our results demonstrate that climate variability in the Southeast Pacific mid-latitudes during the last 25 kyr is closely coupled to global atmospheric and oceanographic reorganisations. Both the northern and southern hemisphere high-latitudes play a crucial role in regulating millennial-scale climate variability, while the effects of variable tropical circulations seem to superimpose on the large scale fluctuations controlled by (sub)polar dynamics.

Detailed palynological studies in the northeast (NE) Pacific, Strait of Georgia (BC, Canada), southeast (SE) Pacific and northwest Pacific (Dongdo Bay, South Korea) resulted in the recognition of the new dinoflagellate cyst species Selenopemphix undulata sp. nov. This species is restricted to cool temperate to sub-polar climate zones, where it is found in highest relative abundances in highly productive non-to reduced upwelling regions with an annual mean sea-surface temperature (aSST) below 16°C and an annual mean sea-surface salinity (aSSS) between 20 and 35 psu. Those observations are in agreement with the late Quaternary fossil records from Santa Barbara Basin (ODP 893: 34°N) and offshore Chile (ODP 1233: 41°S), where this species thrived during the last glacial. This period was characterised by high nutrient availability and the absence of species favouring upwelling conditions. The indirect dependence of S. undulata sp. nov. abundances on nutrient availability during reduced or non-upwelling periods is expressed by the synchronous fluctuations with diatom abundances, since the distribution and growth rates of the latter are directly related with the availability of macronutrients in the surface waters.

Forty-eight surface sediment samples from the southeast (SE) Pacific (25–53°S) are investigated for the determination of the spatial distribution of organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts along the western South American continental margin. Fifty-five different taxa are recorded and reflect oceanic or coastal assemblages.The oceanic assemblages are characterised by low cyst concentrations and the dominance of autotrophs, while the coastal assemblages generally contain a higher number of cysts, which are mainly produced by heterotrophic species. Highest cyst concentrations are observed in the active upwelling system offshore Concepción (35–37°S). Brigantedinium spp., Echinidinium aculeatum, Echinidinium granulatum/delicatum and cysts of Protoperidinium americanum dominate assemblages related to upwelling. Echinidinium aculeatum appears to be the best indicator for the presence of all year round active upwelling cells. Other protoperidinioid cysts may also occur in high relative abundances in coastal regions outside active upwelling systems, if the availability of nutrients, co-responsible for the presence/absence of their main food sources such as diatoms and other protists, is sufficient. The importance of nutrient availability as a determining environmental variable influencing cyst signals on a regional scale (SE Pacific) is demonstrated through statistical analyses of the data. Because of the importance of nutrients, uncertainties about the outcomes of quantitative sea-surface temperature (SST) reconstructions (Modern Analogue Technique) based on dinoflagellate cysts may arise, since no interaction between different hydrographical variables is considered in this approach. The combination of the SE Pacific surface sample dataset with other published cyst data from the Southern Hemisphere resulted in a database which includes 350 samples: the ‘SH350 database’. This database is used to test the accuracy of the quantitative reconstructions by calculating and comparing the estimated versus observed values for each site. An attempt to perform quantitative SST reconstructions on the last 25 cal ka of site ODP1233 (41°S; 74°27'W) is made and again stresses the importance of other environmental variables such as nutrient availability in determining the dinoflagellate cyst assemblages.

The late Quaternary organic-walled dinoflagellate cyst record of Site 1233 (41°S, offshore Chile) was studied with a ~200 year resolution spanning the last 25,000 years. The study provides the first continuous record of sub-recent and recent dinoflagellate cysts in the Southeast (SE) Pacific. Major changes in the composition of the cyst association, cyst concentration and morphology of Operculodinium centrocarpum reflect changes in sea surface temperature (SST), sea surface salinity (SSS), palaeoproductivity and upwelling intensity. These changes can be associated with latitudinal shifts of the circumpolar frontal systems. The high cyst concentration, high Brigantedinium spp. abundances, low species diversity and the occurrence of certain cold water species are supportive for a 7–10° equatorward shift of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) during the coldest phase of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) between 25 and 21.1 cal ka BP. Deglacial warming initiated at ~18.6 cal ka BP. Termination I (18.6–11.1 cal ka BP) is interrupted by an unstable period of extreme seasonality, rather than a cooling event, between 14.4 and 13.2 cal ka BP, synchronous with the Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR). The Holocene Maximum is observed between 11.6 and 9.8 cal ka BP and is typified by the most southward position of the northern margin of the ACC. A cooling phase occurred during the early Holocene (until ~7 cal ka BP) and during the last ~0.8 ka. Our data indicates that the SE Pacific (41°S) climate has been influenced over the whole record by changes in the Southern Hemisphere (SH) high-latitudes, while during the mid to late Holocene, also a tropical forcing mechanism was involved, including the El Niño Southern Oscillation and the variable Hadley cell intensity. Furthermore, this study showed a relationship between the variable morphology of the spines/processes of O. centrocarpum and the combined variation of sea surface salinity and temperature (SSS/SST-ratio).

Absolute abundances (concentrations) of dinoflagellate cysts are often determined through the addition of Lycopodium clavatum marker-grains as a spike to a sample before palynological processing. An inter-laboratory calibration exercise was set up in order to test the comparability of results obtained in different laboratories, each using its own preparation method. Each of the 23 laboratories received the same amount of homogenized splits of four Quaternary sediment samples. The samples originate from different localities and consisted of a variety of lithologies. Dinoflagellate cysts were extracted and counted, and relative and absolute abundances were calculated. The relative abundances proved to be fairly reproducible, notwithstanding a need for taxonomic calibration. By contrast, excessive loss of Lycopodium spores during sample preparation resulted in non-reproducibility of absolute abundances. Use of oxidation, KOH, warm acids, acetolysis, mesh sizes larger than 15 µm and long ultrasonication (> 1 min) must be avoided to determine reproducible absolute abundances. The results of this work therefore indicate that the dinoflagellate cyst worker should make a choice between using the proposed standard method which circumvents critical steps, adding Lycopodium tablets at the end of the preparation and using an alternative method.

Dinoflagellate cysts are used as a proxy for the reconstruction of the salinity variations during Holocene times in the southwestern Black Sea. Core GeoB 7625-2, located 50 km northeast of the mouth of the Sakarya River, was sampled with a 200 year time interval between 0.25 ka BP – 7.8 ka BP. In the lower part of the core, some crucial intervals were sampled with a higher resolution for the determination of the reconnection between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara. A drastic change in the dinoflagellate cyst assemblage – from a freshbrackish water to saltwater association – is observed between ~9.6 and ~8.1 ka BP. The fresh to brackish water indicator species are Spiniferites cruciformis form 1-4 and Pyxidinopsis psilata, while the most important saltwater species are Lingulodinium machaerophorum and cysts of Pentapharsodinium dalei. The first occurrence of euryhaline species took place synchronous with a sea level rise and an increase in productivity. The process length of L. machaerophorum, a salinity proxy, indicates a gradual salinity increase. This assumes a gradual reconnection between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara, which conflicts with the catastrophic flood (Noah’s Flood Hypothesis) introduced by Ryan et al. (1997, 2003). The 500 to 800 year cycles observed in the sedimentary record by Lamy et al. (2006), and related to the North Atlantic Oscillation, were not only recorded by us in the salinity variations but also in dinoflagellate cyst abundances (productivity). The observed productivity changes are furthermore related to the sedimentation rate: the increase in precipitation in Anatolia possibly results in a higher sediment discharge leading to a better preservation of the organic-walled microfossils. This makes it difficult to determine whether the fluctuations of the dinocysts/gram ratio are the result of fluctuations in productivity or are an artefact due to changes in the sedimentation rate. Furthermore, it is shown that Peridinium ponticum, a species restricted geographically to the Black Sea, is a good proxy for the reconstruction of Holocene salinity variations since its relative abundance fluctuates synchronous with the process length variations of L. machaeorophorum.