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Open-mindedness is defined as one's willingness and ability to consider opposing beliefs and perspectives and give them a serious, impartial consideration by setting aside one's commitment towards one's own beliefs and perspectives. Learning to prepare and teach open-minded lessons is a crucial skill for student teachers because it fosters an atmosphere in which pupils feel free to express their own views and to learn about the views of others. The aim of this experiment was to examine which instructional strategy best supports student teachers' learning to prepare an open-minded citizenship education lesson. Therefore, participants (n = 176) processed an instruction on how to prepare an open-minded citizenship education lesson through learning by teaching on video, preparing to teach, or re-study (control condition), and as a post-test designed a lesson plan. We examined the completeness and accuracy of the explanations of the instructional content, feelings of social presence and arousal, open-mindedness levels, the completeness and accuracy of the lesson plans, and the conceptual knowledge of the instructional content. In addition, the lesson plans were graded on overall quality. Results showed that all participants scored higher on open-mindedness as measured with the Actively Open-minded Thinking scale after the experiment than before the experiment. Participants in the control condition prepared significantly more accurate and complete open-minded lessons than participants in the other two conditions, suggesting they have gained better understanding of the instructional content. There were no significant differences between the conditions on the other outcome measures.

Intensive training programs have successfully supported students in using cognitive learning strategies. This study investigated whether a compact intervention can promote students' retrieval practice use during self-study for course-relevant materials. In an experiment embedded in a reputation management course, students were either given strategy instructions on retrieval practice (RP condition), strategy instructions and metacognitive email support (RP++) or no support (control). Students' potential retrieval practice use during self-study of key concepts was measured with an online learning environment. Results showed a small but significant effect on retrieval practice use for the RP++ condition as compared to control (p = 0.005, r = 0.39). No significant differences were found between RP++ and RP, and RP and control and no significant effects were found on a delayed performance test. With our compact intervention, we took a small step in fostering the use of retrieval practice as a learning strategy during self-study.

Presenting novices with examples and problems is an effective and efficient way to acquire new problem-solving skills. Nowadays, examples and problems are increasingly presented in computer-based learning environments, in which learners often have to self-regulate their learning (i.e., choose what type of task to work on and when). Yet, it is questionable how novices self-regulate their learning from examples and problems, and to what extent their choices match with effective principles from instructional design research. In this study, 147 higher education students had to learn how to solve problems on the trapezoidal rule. During self-regulated learning, they were free to select six tasks from a database of 45 tasks that varied in task format (video examples, worked examples, practice problems), complexity level (level 1, 2, 3), and cover story. Almost all students started with (video) example study at the lowest complexity level. The number of examples selected gradually decreased and task complexity gradually increased during the learning phase. However, examples and lowest level tasks remained relatively popular throughout the entire learning phase. There was no relation between students' total score on how well their behavior matched with the instructional design principles and learning outcomes, mental effort, and motivational variables.

Nowadays, students often practice problem-solving skills in online learning environments with the help of examples and problems. This requires them to self-regulate their learning. It is questionable how novices self-regulate their learning from examples and problems and whether they need support. The present study investigated the open questions: (1) to what extent students' (novices) task selections align with instructional design principles; and (2) whether informing them about these principles would improve their task selections, learning outcomes, and motivation. Higher education students (N = 150) learned a problem-solving procedure by fixed sequences of examples and problems (FS-condition), or by self-regulated learning (SRL). The SRL participants selected tasks from a database, varying in format, complexity, and cover story, either with (ISRL-condition) or without (SRL-condition) watching a video detailing the instructional design principles. Students' task-selection patterns in both SRL conditions largely corresponded to the principles, although tasks were built up in complexity more often in the ISRL-condition than in the SRL-condition. Moreover, there was still room for improvement in students' task selections after solving practice problems. The video instruction helped students to better apply certain principles, but did not enhance learning and motivation. Finally, there were no test performance or motivational differences among conditions. Although these findings might suggest it is relatively 'safe' to allow students to independently start learning new problems-solving tasks using examples and problems, caution is warranted: It is unclear whether these findings generalize to other student populations, as the students participating in this study have had some experience with similar tasks or learning with examples. Moreover, as there was still room for improvement in students' task selections, follow-up research should investigate how we can further improve self-regulated learning from examples and practice problems.

There is a need for effective methods to teach critical thinking (CT). One instructional method that seems promising is comparing correct and erroneous worked examples (i.e., contrasting examples). The aim of the present study, therefore, was to investigate the effect of contrasting examples on learning and transfer of CT-skills, focusing on avoiding biased reasoning. Students (N = 170) received instructions on CT and avoiding biases in reasoning tasks, followed by: (1) contrasting examples, (2) correct examples, (3) erroneous examples, or (4) practice problems. Performance was measured on a pretest, immediate posttest, 3-week delayed posttest, and 9-month delayed posttest. Our results revealed that participants' reasoning task performance improved from pretest to immediate posttest, and even further after a delay (i.e., they learned to avoid biased reasoning). Surprisingly, there were no differences in learning gains or transfer performance between the four conditions. Our findings raise questions about the preconditions of contrasting examples effects. Moreover, how transfer of CT-skills can be fostered remains an important issue for future research.

The aim of this experiment was to examine the effect of different instructional strategies on student teachers' confirmation bias. Confirmation bias refers to the selectivity in finding and using evidence that fits one's own beliefs or hypotheses while neglecting evidence that is opposite to one's own beliefs or hypotheses (Nickerson, 1998). Dutch student teachers (n = 141) took a confirmation bias pre-test and were then randomly assigned to three conditions; teaching on video (TOV), preparing to teach (PTT) and re-study (CC). All participants received text-based instruction on confirmation bias and how it can be mitigated. They also practised with confirmation bias tasks and they received feedback on their answers. Subsequently, participants in the TOV and PTT conditions prepared a lesson about the instructional content and in the TOV condition they taught this lesson on video. After the learning phase, TOV and PTT participants completed a social presence questionnaire. All participants completed an arousal questionnaire and a confirmation bias post-test and a transfer test. The results showed that confirmation bias was reduced to a similar extent in all conditions. Results also showed that the quality of the prepared lesson was highest for TOV participants suggesting they had gained better understanding of the confirmation bias than PTT participants. Furthermore, in contrast to our expectations, PTT participants reported highest social presence scores. TOV participants experienced higher arousal levels compared to CC participants. Transfer scores did not differ between conditions. We discuss theoretical explanations of the findings from the present study.

Cumulative assessment refers to interspersed testing in which each assessment covers all previous content and the mean assessments' grade weighs in for the final exam grade. The effect of cumulative assessment on motivation and performance might differ between summative (i.e. assessment grades weigh in for the final exam grade) and formative (i.e. the assessments grades do not weigh in) variants. The present study explored this hypothesis in two field experiments in a higher education course (Exp 1: n = 102; Exp 2: n = 88). Each experiment used a single-factor, between-subjects design with type of cumulative assessment (i.e. summative vs formative) as independent variable and motivation (Exp 1: self-study time, topic interest, perceived competence; Exp 2: preparation time and self-efficacy) and performance (Exp 2: cumulative assessment performance; Exp1 and Exp2: final exam grade and delayed test performance) as dependent variables. The results of both experiments reinforced each other. In the summative condition, the final exam grade was higher than in the formative condition. However, when the summative assessments were discarded from the final grade, this difference disappeared. Also, in both experiments, the conditions did not differ on motivation measures. Theoretical and practical implications of our findings are discussed.

Effective cognitive learning strategies are beneficial for learning and long‐term retention. However, higher education students often rely on surface‐level strategies like reading and underlining. Interventions to support effective cognitive strategy use have addressed knowledge, beliefs, planning, and commitment. This latter aspect and its relation with motivation has remained underexposed. Therefore, this study aimed to answer the following research question: What factors contribute to student motivation for effective cognitive strategy use during self‐study in higher education? First‐year vocational university students participated in focus group discussions (N = 100), and completed a strategy questionnaire (N = 217). Results showed that students used combinations of effective cognitive and surface‐level strategies based on successful past experiences. Perceived utility value of strategies for students' performance‐oriented goals contributed considerably to motivation, and students reduced perceived costs by combining self‐study with non‐academic activities. Incorporating these aspects in strategy support could be next steps for future interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research suggests some sequences of examples and problems (i.e., EE, EP) are more effective (higher test performance) and efficient (attained with equal/less mental effort) than others (PP, sometimes also PE). Recent findings suggest this is due to motivational variables (i.e., self-efficacy), but did not test this during the training phase. Moreover, prior research used only short task sequences. Therefore, we investigated effects on motivational variables, effectiveness, and efficiency in a short (Experiment 1; four learning tasks; n = 157) and longer task sequence (Experiment 2; eight learning tasks; n = 105). With short sequences, all example conditions were more effective, efficient, and motivating than PP. With longer sequences, all example conditions were more motivating and efficient than PP, but only EE was more effective than PP. Moreover, EE was most efficient during training, regardless of sequence length. These results suggest that example study (only) is more effective, efficient, and more motivating than PP.

Numerous studies have found better memory for multimodal than unimodal stimuli. In these studies, however, multimodal stimuli consist not only of multiple modalities, but also of more varied information than unimodal. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated encoding variability as an explanation for the multisensory benefit. Written words were studied together with two different orienting questions that promoted processing of same modality (both visual or both auditory) or different modality information (one visual and one auditory). In Experiment 1, recognition memory did not differ between constant modality and varied modality conditions. In Experiment 2, we replicated this effect with items that were repeated at a lag and we found an advantage of any type of encoding variability (within and between modality) compared to a condition in which the same orienting question was repeated. In Experiments 3 and 4, these findings were replicated when there was a day delay between study and test. We conclude that we did find an encoding variability benefit on memory, but no multisensory benefit. This conclusion challenges the sensory integration explanation and provides support for encoding variability as an explanation of the multisensory benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presentation of extraneous (i.e., irrelevant or unnecessary) information may hamper learning with multimedia. The present study examined whether people can learn to ignore unnecessary information with increasing experience with the task and whether this depends on the layout of that information. In two experiments, participants learned about the process of mitosis from a multimedia slideshow, with each slide presenting a combination of expository text and a picture on one of the stages in the process. Slides either contained no unnecessary text (control condition) or unnecessary text (i.e., merely describing the picture) either integrated in the picture (integrated condition) or presented underneath the picture (separated condition). Knowledge about the studied mitosis phase was tested immediately after each slide using a cloze test. Across Experiments 1 and 2, we did not find a reliable negative effect of the unnecessary text on cloze test performance. As a result, the question of whether task experience would reduce or eliminate that negative effect could not be answered. The eye movement data did confirm, however, that participants attended less to the unnecessary information with increasing task experience, suggesting that students can adapt their study strategy and learn to ignore unnecessary information.

Research on multimedia learning has shown that learning is hampered when a multimedia message includes extraneous information that is not relevant for the task, because processing the extraneous information uses up scarce attention and working memory resources. However, eye-tracking research suggests that task experience might be a boundary condition for this negative effect of extraneous information on learning, because people seem to learn to ignore task-irrelevant information over time. We therefore hypothesised that extraneous information might no longer hamper learning when it is present over a series of tasks, giving learners the chance to adapt their study strategy. This hypothesis was tested in three experiments. In experiments 1a/1b, participants learned the definitions of new words (from an artificial language) that denoted actions, with matching pictures (same action), mismatching pictures (another action), or without pictures. Mismatching pictures hampered learning compared with matching pictures. Experiment 2 showed that task experience may indeed be a boundary condition to this negative effect on learning: the initial negative effect was no longer present when learners gained experience with the task. This suggests that learners adapted their study strategy, ignoring the mismatching pictures. That hypothesis was tested in experiment 3, using eye tracking. Results showed that attention to the pictures waned with task experience, and that this decrease was stronger for mismatching than for matching pictures. Our findings demonstrate the importance of investigating multimedia effects over time and in relation to study strategies.

Although the presentation of extraneous (i.e., irrelevant or unnecessary) information hinders learning, it is unclear whether and how layout and pacing influence this effect. In two experiments, participants learned how the heart functions using four different layouts: a diagram presented without unnecessary text (diagram only), with unnecessary text separated from the diagram (separated) or integrated into the diagram (integrated), or with separated unnecessary text and the instruction to integrate (integration instruction). In Experiment 1, study time was self-paced for half of the participants and system paced for the other half. There were no effects of layout and of pacing on learning, although system pacing was more effortful than self-pacing. In Experiment 2, which was system paced and employed eye tracking, the integrated condition showed worse learning outcomes than the separated condition. Moreover, in the integrated condition, participants made more integration attempts between the unnecessary text and the diagram than in the separated condition.

Background: Little is known about how conspiracy beliefs and health responses are interrelated over time during the course of the coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic. This longitudinal study tested two contrasting, but not mutually exclusive, hypotheses through cross-lagged modeling. First, based on the consequential nature of conspiracy beliefs, we hypothesize that conspiracy beliefs predict an increase in detrimental health responses over time. Second, as people may rationalize their behavior through conspiracy beliefs, we hypothesize that detrimental health responses predict increased conspiracy beliefs over time. Methods: We measured conspiracy beliefs and several health-related responses (i.e. physical distancing, support for lockdown policy, and the perception of the coronavirus as dangerous) at three phases of the pandemic in the Netherlands (N = 4913): During the first lockdown (Wave 1: April 2020), after the first lockdown (Wave 2: June 2020), and during the second lockdown (Wave 3: December 2020). Results: For physical distancing and perceived danger, the overall cross-lagged effects supported both hypotheses, although the standardized effects were larger for the effects of conspiracy beliefs on these health responses than vice versa. The within-person change results only supported an effect of conspiracy beliefs on these health responses, depending on the phase of the pandemic. Furthermore, an overall cross-lagged effect of conspiracy beliefs on reduced support for lockdown policy emerged from Wave 2 to 3. Conclusions: The results provide stronger support for the hypothesis that conspiracy beliefs predict health responses over time than for the hypothesis that health responses predict conspiracy beliefs over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effects of two different true-false questions on memory awareness and long-term retention of knowledge. Participants took four subsequent knowledge tests on curriculum learning material that they studied at different retention intervals prior to the start of this study (i.e. prior to the first test). At the first and fourth (pre- and post-) tests, participants indicated which form of memory awareness (i.e. remember, know, familiar and/or guess) accompanied their answer. On the two intermediate tests, testing format was manipulated: true/false or true/false justification, that is a true/false statement with the additional instruction to explain why the statement is true or false. The results resembled earlier findings in that different forms of memory awareness could be distinguished. The study did not indicate (additional) knowledge schematisation as a result of testing or testing format. However, independent of test format, the proportion of correct answers on the post-test was higher than on the pre-test. This could indicate that the beneficial effects of testing can occur even when the learning episode was at a long retention interval prior to the first test.