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On August 14, 1964, the “Romashka” reactor-converter—the world's first setup with direct (thermoelectric) conversion of heat from235U fission into electricity—was started up at the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy and service-life nuclear tests were begun. In 1999, 35 years have passed since the “Romashka” reactor-converter was first started up and trials began. “Romashka” successfully operated for about 15000 hours and generated ∼6100 kW·h of electricity. The startup and successful tests of the “Romashka” reactor-converter recieved in its time high marks from the world scientific community and they demonstrated that the world's first operating nuclear reactor-converter, capable of generating electricity without the participation of any moving working bodies or mechanisms, was developed in the short time of about 3 years in the Soviet Union, and it was shown experimentally that the system was capable of prolonged operation. The technology created in the process of developing the “Romashka” reactor-converter and, specifically, the thermoelectric silicon-germanium transducers have found application in operating space nuclear (reactor and isotopic) power systems. 3 figures.

Space technology for manufacturing on an industrial scale of certain materials, and medicines of significantly higher quality. At present, space manufacturing of semiconductor materials for the electronic industry seems the most promising. Even in this decade the scale of production required may become considerable. The residual gravity aboard a spacecraft designed for various technological processes should not exceed 10{sup {minus}5}-10{sup {minus}6}g(g is the acceleration of free fall). The length of technological cycles may range from several hours to one month. Thermoelectric nuclear power generators offer much promise for use in industrial spacecraft, and in this paper, we discuss possible concepts for the application of thermoelectric nuclear power generators in industrial spacecraft, characterized by the following options for power supply and the logistics of loading the raw materials and unloading the manufactured products and the redelivery to earth: (1) automatic loading an unloading of the raw materials and products, (2) manual loading and unloading, and (3) energy supplied remotely to the industrial spacecraft from an autonomous power plant.

The paper presents some results of efforts dealing with computational analyses of probability of impact of nuclear power sources (NPS) on space debris (SD), destruction of the NPS structure on the impacts, change in orbital parameters as a result of the NPS impact and reentry.

The paper presents some results of calculational analyses performed to determine thermal state of the TOPAZ II safety system structure, radiation shielding, reactor without the side reflector, rods and inserts of the side reflector under conditions of fire at the launch pad when an accident occurs to a launch vehicle.

The paper presents results of more accurate computational analysis of the TOPAZ‐2 system reactor core aerodynamic disruption at an inadvertent reentry. Given are preliminary results on the pattern of disruption of the core partially burnt during its descent in the atmosphere at its impact on the surface of water and sandstone (medium density concrete).

The paper presents conceptual design of the bimodal space nuclear power system (NPS) based on the high‐temperature reactor of ROMASHKA type with thermoninic energy conversion system. At the heart of the design is an employment of close‐spaced thermionic diodes, operating in a quasi‐vacuum mode. The paper gives preliminary estimates of the NPS neutron‐physical, electric, thermophysical and mass‐dimensional parameters for the reactor electric power of 25 kW and propulsive thrust of about 80 N. Discussed are peculiarities of the combined mode wherein electric power is generated along with propulsive thrust. The paper contains results of the design studies performed by the Small Business ‘‘NP Energotech’’ under the Agreement with Rockwell International/Rocketdyne Division and according to the Rocketdyne Division provided Design Requirements. Involved in the work was the team of specialists of RRC ‘‘Kurchatov Institute’’, ‘‘Red Star’’ State Enterprise and Research Institute of SPA ‘‘Luch’’

This paper summarizes the research efforts on investigating the possibility of launching the Nuclear Electric Propulsion Space Test Program (NEPSTP) spacecraft, designed by the Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) of Johns Hopkins University, with the Russian ‘‘Proton’’ launch vehicle from the Baikonur launch site (Ponomarev‐Stepnoi 1994). The NEPSTP spacecraft is designed to demonstrate a payload transportation to GEO using the TOPAZ II space nuclear power system and nuclear electric propulsion of different types (including those developed in the US, Great Britain and Russia) capable of providing spacecraft injection to GEO.The spacecraft’s onboard instrumentation includes sensors to measure neutron and gamma radiation around the spacecraft, as well as positron fields surrounding the reactor, and neutral particles and the plasma resulting from operation of nuclear electric propulsion, powered by the nuclear power source. The analysis under study was prepared by the scientists from the Scientific Industrial A...

The paper presents characteristics and conceptual design of the bimodal space thermionic system with the single‐cell thermionic fuel elements, intended for operation in two modes: steady‐state power mode, wherein the electric power is generated required for supply of the spaceborne systems at a level of 20 kWe, and forced power and propulsion mode. The paper contains results of the design studies performed by the Small Business ‘‘NP Energotech’’ under the Agreement with Rockwell International/Rocketdyne Division and according to the Rocketdyne Division provided Design Requirements. Involved in the work was the team of specialists of RRC ‘‘Kurchatov Institute’’, CDBMB and Research Institute of SPA ‘‘Luch’’.

The new reactor control unit (RCU) of the space nuclear power system (SNPS) TOPAZ‐II is described. The RCU and the monitoring and testing equipment, along with the dynamic simulator of the NPS, comprise the universal modeling facility (UMF) that was designed at the Kurchatov Institute and the Institute of Instrumentation. Development was funded by the INERTEX Joint‐Stock Company. The special features of the RCU and the UMF, their main technical characteristics, and test results are presented.

This paper presents the results of computational analysis performed for aerodynamic disruption of a spacecraft using the Topaz‐2 system during reentry from intermediate orbits at accidents on the stage of injection into operational orbit.

This paper presents preliminary results of analysis for the TOPAZ‐2 thermionic converter‐reactor aerodynamic disruption during reentry.

One of the important future space technologies is the space production of semiconductive substances, composite materials, medical preparations and so on. Required for this electric power will equal 20–50 kW in nearest ten‐year period with further increasing to one hundred and more kilowatt. For similar production spacecrafts the application of thermionic space nuclear power (SNPS) can be perspective because these systems have a number of important advantages as compared with solar systems for spacecrafts of this type. The possible application concepts of thermionic SNPS with electric power 25 to 30 kW production spacecrafts are considered including the next versions: automatic loading and unloading of raw materials and products; loading and unloading executed by cosmonauts when SNPS being as a part of spacecraft and its demating from spacecraft during the process fulfillment; remote power transmission for power supply of production spacecrafts. It is shown that all considered versions thermionic SNPS can provide power supply of production spacecrafts with satisfying necessary operation requirements.

The paper considers the concept of power propulsion systems‐universal space platforms (USPs) on the basis of second‐generation thermionic nuclear power system (NPSs) and stationary plasma electric thrusters (SPETs). The composition and the principles of layout of such a system, based on a thermionic NPS with a continuous power of up to 30 kWe allowing power augmentation by a factor of 2–2.5 as long as during a year, as well as SPETs with a specific impulse of at least 20 km/s and a propulsion efficiency of 0.6–0.7 are discussed. The layouts and the basic parameters are presented for a power propulsion system ensuring cargo transportation from an initial radiation‐safe 800 km high orbit into a geostationary one using the ‘‘Zenit’’ and ‘‘Proton’’ launch systems for injection into an initial orbit. It is shown that the mass of mission‐oriented equipment in the geostationary orbit in the cases under consideration ranges from 2500 to 5500 kg on condition that the flight time is not longer than a year.The power...

This paper describes characteristics of the TOPAZ Reactors for space power applications developed in the USSR. TOPAZ‐2 has been shown to be useful for satellites and for lunar or Martian bases. It can be coupled with a Stirling engine. TOPAZ‐3 reactor provides greater power levels while TOPAZ‐4 has an improved multicell thermionic fuel element. (AIP)

This paper presents a discussion of the main parameters of a thermionic converter reactor with zirconium hydride moderator using a single‐element fuel element built into the core. Power distribution of the thermionic fuel element, reactivity changes with time, temperature effects and power density were investigated with Monte Carlo calculations. (AIP)