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The genetic modification of plants for the removal of inorganic pollutants from contaminated soil and water bodies is an emerging area for addressing environmental concerns. This approach is based on the ability of plants to take up and accumulate heavy metals, with efficiency being dependent on the underlying mechanisms of heavy metal accumulation and tolerance. A robust antioxidant pathway is determinantal for heavy metal uptake and accumulation and, therefore, in this study, we evaluated the transgenic tomato plants installed with Ascorbate Glutathione (ASA-GSH) pathway genes for uptake, accumulation, and response to mercury (Hg). We observed that ASA-GSH overexpressing lines were resilient to Hg stress as they displayed higher photosynthetic activity and increased photosynthetic gas exchange parameters with a concomitant decrease in ion leakage under Hg stress. Additionally, transgenic lines accumulated high osmolytes and showed enhanced activity of antioxidant enzymes. Moreover, the results of SEM and confocal microscopy confirmed least damage to plant tissue in ASA-GSH overexpressing lines compared to wild-type under Hg-stress which was further supported by Atomic absorption study that revealed a significant decline in Hg accumulation in the leaves of transgenic lines compared to wild-type under stress conditions. In conclusion, pyramiding of ASA-GSH pathway genes in tomato plants is an efficient approach for the development of Hg-resistant tomato plants and the reclamation of Hg-contaminated sites.

Increased dependence on thermal power has resulted in a significant increase in the generation of fly ash (FA), which exacerbates environmental pollution. In order to mitigate this source of pollution, we propose covering FA dumps with a layer of planted vegetation. Due to varying degrees of tolerance and their sessile nature, plants are themselves susceptible to stress from pollution. This suggests that an investigation to assess the role of wild growing plants for management of FA dumps, where selected wild plants could be grown to mitigate consequences of FA. The present study assesses oxidative damage and the foliar concentration of metals in Withania somnifera growing wild at the Badarpur Thermal Power Plant (BTPP) compared to those growing at a control site. Plants growing at the BTPP showed significantly higher foliar concentrations of Pb, Mn, and Fe, and low concentrations of Ni and Cd. The plants at the BTPP site showed signs of oxidative stress as indicated by enhanced levels of malondialdehyde and electrolyte leakage from cells. The CO2 assimilation rate, net photosynthetic rate, rate of transpiration, stomatal conductance decrease, while water use efficiency, and air pollution tolerance index increase. Among air pollution tolerance index parameters, relative water content showed a significant increase with FA pollution stress at the BTPP. A significant decrease was observed in leaf morphology single leaf area, leaf length, and leaf width and biochemical parameters (Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoids. Moreover, FA pollution stress induces oxidative stress in W. somnifera through a significant and enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). According to our observations, the ability of W. somnifera to effectively coordinate superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase activities involved in the scavenging of ROS along with the enhanced increment of nonenzyme activities (total ascorbic acid, proline, and oxidized glutathione) could be related to FA stress tolerance in W. somnifera.

Cadmium stress is one of the chief environmental cues that can substantially reduce plant growth. In the present research, we studied the effect of jasmonic acid (JA) and gibberellic acid (GA3) applied individually and/or in combination to chickpea (Cicer arietinum) plants exposed to 150 µM cadmium sulphate. Cadmium stress resulted in reduced plant growth and pigment contents. Moreover, chickpea plants under cadmium contamination displayed higher levels of electrolytic leakage, H2O2, and malonaldehyde, as well as lower relative water content. Plants primed with JA (1 nM) and those foliar-fed with GA3 (10–6 M) showed improved metal tolerance by reducing the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, malonaldehyde and electrolytic leakage, and increasing relative water content. . Osmoprotectants like proline and glycinebetaine increased under cadmium contamination. Additionally, the enzymatic activities and non-enzymatic antioxidant levels increased markedly under Cd stress, but application of JA as well as of GA3 further improved these attributes. Enzymes pertaining to the ascorbate glutathione and glyoxylase systems increased significantly when the chickpea plants were exposed to Cd. However, JA and GA3 applied singly or in combination showed improved enzymatic activities as well as nutrient uptake, whereas they reduced the metal accumulation in chickpea plants. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that JA and GA3 are suitable agents for regulating Cd stress resistance in chickpea plants.

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The term ‘proteomics’ refers to a high-throughput technology and methodology to analyze protein profile of any organism. The complete set of proteins (proteome) of a cell is quite complex apart from being dynamic. Furthermore, environmental conditions greatly influence the accumulation of many proteins and thus dissecting the dynamics of proteome in response to any external stimuli is crucial for understanding the plant response to different environmental cues. Cold or freezing stress is a severe abiotic stress that not only reduces crop yield but also restricts the geographical distribution of many plant species on earth. The ability of the plants to adapt to various environmental stresses determines their survival and understanding this ‘ability’ is crucial for developing stress tolerant plants for improving agricultural yield. Proteomics provides an important platform to understand the molecular mechanisms lying behind cold tolerance in different plants. Here we have reviewed the current proteomics studies in plant response to cold stress with specific emphasis to cold stress response in plants at organ and organelle levels.

Stacking Glutathione–Ascorbate pathway genes (PgSOD, PgAPX, PgGR, PgDHAR and PgMDHAR) under stress inducible promoter RD29A imparts significant tolerance to drought and salinity stress in Solanum lycopersicum. Although the exposure of plants to different environmental stresses results in overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), many plants have developed some unique systems to alleviate the ROS production and mitigate its deleterious effect. One of the key pathways that gets activated in plants is ascorbate glutathione (AsA-GSH) pathway. To demonstrate the effect of this pathway in tomato, we developed the AsA-GSH overexpression lines by stacking the genes of the AsA-GSH pathway genes isolated from Pennisetum glaucoma (Pg) including PgSOD, PgAPX, PgGR, PgDHAR and PgMDHAR under stress inducible promoter RD29A. The overexpression lines have an improved germination and seedling growth with concomitant elevation in the survival rate. The exposure of transgenic seedlings to varying stress regiments exhibited escalation in the antioxidant enzyme activity and lesser membrane damage as reflected by decreased electrolytic leakage and little accumulation of malondialdehyde and H2O2. Furthermore, the transgenic lines accumulated high levels of osmoprotectants with increase in the relative water content. The increased photosynthetic activity and enhanced gaseous exchange parameters further confirmed the enhanced tolerance of AsA-GSH overexpression lines. We concluded that pyramiding of AsA-GSH pathway genes is an effective strategy for developing stress resistant crops.

Cold stress is considered as a major environmental factor that adversely affect the plant growth and distribution. Therefore, there arises an immediate need to cultivate effective strategies aimed at developing stress-tolerant crops that would boost the production and minimise the risks associated with cold stress. In this study, a novel cold-responsive protein1 isolated from Brassica oleracea (BoCRP1) was ectopically expressed in a cold susceptible tomato genotype Shalimar 1 and its function was investigated in response to chilling stress. BoCRP1 was constitutively expressed in all the tissues of B. oleracea including leaf, root and stem however, its expression was found to be significantly increased in response to cold stress. Moreover, transgenic tomato plants expressing BoCRP1 exhibited increased tolerance to chilling stress (4oC) with an overall improved rate of seed germination, increased root length, reduced membrane damage and increase in accumulation of osmoprotectants. Furthermore, we observed increased transcript levels of stress responsive genes and enhanced accumulation of ROS scavenging enzymes in transgenic on exposure to chilling stress. These results are therefore strongly in support of the role of BoCRP1 in offering the plant a protective shield and heightened resilience to chilling stress by maintaining osmotic balance, utilising the cellular antioxidant system and enhancing the transcription of cold responsive genes.

At present, the concept of health consciousness in urban and rural people is becoming increasingly popularized. Keeping in mind the health effects of modern medicine, people have been using herbal medicines either alone or in combination with other products to achieve this state of health. There are substantial monetary profits associated with the expansion and use of plants with medicinal importance and their associated products in aboriginal medications in disease treatment, which indicates that the ways are widening for the herbal renaissance. This is evident from reports published by the World Health Organization (WHO) that 70%–80% of the global population fulfills its primary healthcare needs by using different herbs for medicinal purposes. From prehistoric times to present day, about 53,000 species of herbs are exploited in human disease treatment. The controlled accessibility of various agents needs to be considered if plant-based medicinal products are to be developed as chemotherapeutic medicines. Due to this overexploitation, many species are threatened with extinction. For the judicious use of herbal medicines and their products, great care should be kept in mind while using these herbal medicines, and their overexploitation must be controlled. This can only be achieved when we strive hard to implement three major goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992): conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of biodiversity components, and fair and equitable benefit sharing from genetic resources. Although plants with medicinal and aromatic importance have not been clearly on the program of biodiversity convention conferences, the goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity are wholly related to these resources of plants with medicinal value.

In fly ash–contaminated soils, metal buildup and translocation and their subsequent uptake in different parts of naturally growing plants were studied. The mean metal levels in soil and plants at uncontaminated site were significantly (p Fe> Cr > Zn > Pb > Cu > Ni > Mn. The shoot enrichment factor (SEF) of Pithecellobium dulce (P. dulce) was Cd > Fe > Zn > Cr > Ni > Cu > Mn > Pb, whereas for Azadirachta indica (A. Indica) and Cassia fistula (C. fistula), the SEF was of the order Fe > Cd > Cr > Zn> Ni > Mn > Cu > Pb, respectively. Root enrichment factor (REF) for P. dulce was Cd > Fe > Zn > Ni > Cu > Cr = Mn > Pb, but in A. indica, the REF was Fe > Cd > Zn > Ni > Mn > Pb > Cu > Cr, and in C. fistula, this order was Fe > Cd > Zn > Ni > Cr > Cu > Mn > Pb. Metal mobilization ratio in plants at both sites were below 1, except Mn and Fe at contaminated site. Single and combined element pollution indexes (SEPI and CPI) and shoot contamination factor (SCF) at contaminated soil were higher than uncontaminated, but root contamination factor (RCF) between sites shows a variable response. From ANOVA results, metal concentration showed significant variation due to site, plants, location, and season interactions.

The present study was carried out to investigate the effect of individual drought, heat, and combined drought and heat stress on tomato plants. Combined stress resulted in the higher accumulation of Proline (101.9%), MDA (38.55%), H(2)O(2) (101.19%), and lower levels of RWC (53.84%). Individual drought and heat stress decreased photosynthetic pigments like total chlorophyll content by (45.45%) and (25.35%), respectively, higher rates of pigment reduction (79.42%) were observed under combined drought and heat stress. Combined stress decreased PSII efficiency (Fv/Fm), quantum yield (ΦPSII), and photochemical efficiency (qp) and increased non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) levels. Moreover, the gas exchange parameters E, A, and Pn decreased by 5.36%, 36.45%, and 51.00%, respectively, in comparison to control plants. Antioxidant enzymes, SOD, APX, CAT, and GR showed a two- to threefold increase under combined drought and heat stress; however, the non-enzymatic antioxidants AsA and GSH displayed one–twofold increase under combined stress. Moreover, 2- to 2.5-fold decrease was observed in MDHAR and DHAR enzyme transcripts under combined stress conditions. The transcripts corresponding to AsA–GSH pathway enzymes SOD, APX, GR, DHAR, and MDHAR were up-regulated by 8- to 12-fold under combined drought and heat. Furthermore, DREB and LEA transcripts were up-regulated under drought and combined stress and down-regulated under drought stress. In the same manner, HSP70 and HSP90 transcripts were up-regulated under heat and combined stress; however, the transcription levels got down-regulated under drought stress. Additionally, rbcL and RCA transcripts were down-regulated especially under combined stress in comparison to individual drought and heat conditions. PSIP680 relative expression levels were up-regulated under drought stress; however, the transcripts were down-regulated under heat and combined stress. Taken together, the results suggest that the combined stress has a predominant effect over individual stress.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are endogenously produced by several plant organelles and compartments, particularly those with high electron transport rates, such as chloroplasts, mitochondria and peroxisomes as metabolic by-products that act as cellular messengers and redox regulators of several plant biological processes. Excessive accumulation of ROS causes oxidative stress leading to protein denaturation, lipids peroxidation, and nucleotides degradation, which results in cellular damage and ultimately cell death. Functional approaches have provided evidence of the convergence of signaling pathways regulating plant responses to developmental cues and abiotic and biotic stress factors. They have highlighted the role of phytohormones and redox signaling, and identified key regulatory elements – molecular hubs – where multiple signaling cascades converge. The integration of multiple signals through these hubs allows the plant to fine-tune its response to particular conditions. In this regard, growing evidence shows that the generation of ROS is one of the most common plant responses to different stresses, representing a point at which various signaling pathways come together to modulate the plant response to environmental cues. Redox regulation of integral pathway proteins provides a rapid and simple mechanism for the regulation of plant development and defence pathways. MAPK pathways are common and versatile signaling components that lie downstream of second messengers and hormones, and play central roles in plant responses to various stresses. In this review, the complex nature of plant stress signaling network is discussed. An emphasis on different signaling players with a specific attention to ROS as the primary source of the signaling battery in plants is presented. The interaction between ROS and other signaling components, e.g., redox homeostasis, MAPKs, and plant hormones has also been assessed.

Nano-sized CuO particles were prepared insitu via “one-pot, solvent-less” microwave-induced synthesis, by environmentally benign polyol process using polyol obtained from Linseed oil by (non-aqueous) condensation reaction, for the first time. Linseed polyol acts as solvent, base matrix providing functional groups, and stabilizer; the reaction is devoid of any additive, catalyst or solvent. In the prepared nanocomposites [LPE-CuO], CuO nanoparticles shaped somewhat like rods, assembled themselves in a “T-fashion”. The antifungal effects of synthesized particles were investigated against four clinical isolates of different Candida species. Results showed that the synthesized compound LPE-0.06 was found to be most effective, followed by LPE-0.05 and LPE-0.04. The rapid actions of the synthesized compounds on fungal cells suggested membrane-located targets. We investigated the effect of MIC90 values of these compounds on H+-ATPase mediated proton pumping by different Candida species. In the absence of glucose, the mean inhibition rate of H+ extrusion caused by MIC of LP was 28.09%, LPE: 33.04%, CuAc: 36.86%, LPE-0.04: 58.54%, LPE-0.05: 69.82% and LPE-0.06: 78.07%, respectively. Antifungal mechanism of action suggested that the synthesized compounds exert their antifungal activity by targeting H+-ATPase mediated proton pumping. Inhibition of H+-ATPase activity leads to intracellular acidification and consequently cell death. Results obtained in this study indicated strong antifungal activity of synthesized compounds against all the Candida species and suggest that the inhibition of fungal H+ ATPase is responsible for the antifungal activity of the test compounds. LPE-CuO can be employed as antifungal polyester and polyurethane coatings. The present work is consistent with the Principles (Principle 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, 12) of Green Chemistry.

This study investigates the effect of fly ash (FA) on the Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb) Benth. trees growing at three different locations. FA stress caused significant changes in different leaf attributes like sugar, protein contents, photosynthetic pigments, nitrate content and nitrate reductase activity in foliar tissues of plants growing at a highly contaminated site, as compared to a low-pollution site. Lower rates of stomatal conductance (SC) were observed in P. dulce leaves under fly ash stress conditions that drastically reduced net photosynthetic rate (PN), however, intercellular carbon dioxide concentration and stomatal index (SI) showed an increase under the same stress conditions. On the other hand, significant increase was also observed in the proline, sulphur and nitrogen contents. A significant increase in oxidative stress and, consequently, in antioxidant enzymes such as ascorbate peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), and superoxidase dismutase (SOD) and Air pollution tolerance index were discovered at three different sites. The transcriptional expression of antioxidant and stress responsive genes was higher at HPS as compared to two other two sites of the study. Taken together the results demonstrated that the P. dulce is best suited as a fly ash stress tolerant plant species with the potential to provide an alternative for the reclamation of fly ash affected soils.

The present research was performed to assess the effect of 24-epibrassinolide (EBR) on salt-stressed soybean plants. Salt stress suppressed growth, biomass yield, gas exchange parameters, pigment content, and chlorophyll fluorescence, but all these parameters were up-regulated by EBR supply. Moreover, salt stress increased hydrogen peroxide, malondialdehyde, and electrolyte leakage. EBR supplementation reduced the accumulation of oxidative stress biomarkers. The activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase, and the accumulation of proline, glycinebetaine, total phenols, and total flavonoids increased with NaCl stress, but these attributes further increased with EBR supplementation. The activities of enzymes and the levels of non-enzymatic antioxidants involved in the Asc-Glu cycle also increased with NaCl stress, and further enhancement in these attributes was recorded by EBR supplementation. Salinity elevated the methylglyoxal content, but it was decreased by the EBR supplementation accompanying with up-regulation of the glyoxalase cycle (GlyI and GlyII). Salinity enhanced the Na+ uptake in root and shoot coupled with a decrease in uptake of Ca2+, K+, and P. However, EBR supplementation declined Na+ accumulation and promoted the uptake of the aforementioned nutrients. Overall, EBR supplementation regulated the salt tolerance mechanism in soybean plants by modulating osmolytes, activities of key enzymes, and the levels of non-enzymatic antioxidants.

The foliar and biochemical traits of Azadirachta indica A. Juss from fly ash (FA) dumping site in Badarpur thermal power plant (BTPP) New Delhi, India was studied. Three different experimental sites were selected at different distances from the thermal power plant. Ambient suspended particulate matter (SPM) and plant responses such as leaf pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids), total chlorophyll, net photosynthetic rate, stomatal index (SI), stomatal conductance (SC), intercellular carbon dioxide concentration [CO2]i, net photosynthetic rate (NPR), nitrogen, nitrate, nitrate reductase activity, proline, protein, reducing sugar and sulphur content were measured. Considerable reduction in pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids), and total chlorophyll was observed at fly ash dumping site. Fly ash stress revealed the inhibitory effect on Nitrate reductase activity (NRA), Nitrate, soluble protein, and reducing sugar content, whereas stimulatory effect was found for the stomatal index, nitrogen, proline, antioxidants and sulphur content in the leaves. Under fly ash stress, stomatal conductance was low, leading to declining in photosynthetic rate and increase in the internal CO2 concentration of leaf. Single leaf area (SLA), leaf length and leaf width also showed a declining trend from control to the polluted site. Antioxidant enzymes increased in leaves reflecting stress and extenuation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

In this study, we have used aldehyde function of cinnamaldehyde to synthesize N, N'-Bis (cinnamaldehyde) ethylenediimine [C20H20N2] and Co(II) complex of the type [Co(C40H40N4)Cl2]. The structures of the synthesized compounds were determined on the basis of physiochemical analysis and spectroscopic data ((1)H NMR, FTIR, UV-visible and mass spectra) along with molar conductivity measurements. Anticandidal activity of cinnamaldehyde its ligand [L] and Co(II) complex was investigated by determining MIC80, time-kill kinetics, disc diffusion assay and ergosterol extraction and estimation assay. Ligand [L] and Co(II) complex are found to be 4.55 and 21.0 folds more efficient than cinnamaldehyde in a liquid medium. MIC80 of Co(II) complex correlated well with ergosterol inhibition suggesting ergosterol biosynthesis to be the primary site of action. In comparison to fluconazole, the test compounds showed limited toxicity against H9c2 rat cardiac myoblasts. In confocal microscopy propidium iodide (PI) penetrates the yeast cells when treated with MIC of metal complex, indicating a disruption of cell membrane that results in imbibition of dye. TEM analysis of metal complex treated cells exhibited notable alterations or damage to the cell membrane and the cell wall. The structural disorganization within the cell cytoplasm was noted. It was concluded that fungicidal activity of Co(II) complex originated from loss of membrane integrity and a decrease in ergosterol content is only one consequence of this.

A series of specific task ionic liquids (ILs) based on a pyridiniumhydrazone scaffold in combination with hexafluorophosphate (PF6−), tetrafluoroboron (BF4−) and/or trifluoroacetate (CF3COO−) counter anion, were designed and characterized by IR, NMR and mass spectrometry. The reactions were conducted under both conventional and green ultrasound procedures. The antifungal potential of the synthesized compounds 2–25 was investigated against 40 strains of Candida (four standard and 36 clinical isolates). Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC90) of the synthesized compounds were in the range of 62.5–2000 μg/mL for both standard and oral Candida isolates. MIC90 results showed that the synthesized 1-(2-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-oxoethyl)-4-(2-(4-fluorobenzylidene)hydrazinecarbonyl)-pyridin-1-ium hexafluorophosphate (11) was found to be most effective, followed by 4-(2-(4-fluorobenzylidene)hydrazinecarbonyl)-1-(2-(4-nitrophenyl)-2-oxoethyl)-pyridin-1-ium hexafluorophosphate (14) and 1-(2-ethoxy-2-oxoethyl)-4-(2-(4-fluorobenzylidene)hydrazinecarbonyl)pyridin-1-ium hexafluorophosphate (8). All the Candida isolates showed marked sensitivity towards the synthesized compounds. Ergosterol content was drastically reduced by more active synthesized compounds, and agreed well with MIC90 values. Confocal scanning laser microscopy (CLSM) results showed that the red colored fluorescent dye enters the test agent treated cells, which confirms cell wall and cell membrane damage. The microscopy results obtained suggested membrane-located targets for the action of these synthesized compounds. It appears that the test compounds might be interacting with ergosterol in the fungal cell membranes, decreasing the membrane ergosterol content and ultimately leading to membrane disruption as visible in confocal results. The present study indicates that these synthesized compounds show significant antifungal activity against Candida which forms the basis to carry out further in vivo experiments before their clinical use.

Increase in the crop yield is priority due to rise in population and global demand for food. There are plethora of factors that limit crop yield; however, the major factors limiting crop productivity are abiotic factors such as salinity, extremes of temperature, drought, intense light and oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Plants respond to these environmental assaults by differential expression of genes which can bring about changes at genomic, transcriptomic as well as at proteomic level. Changes in the protein levels are the result of the altered gene expression that may lead to adaptation or regulation of responses against abiotic stresses. Proteomics can help in identifying novel candidate genes that can be used for engineering crops for improved stress tolerance. It can also assist in selection of appropriate phenotypes for proteomic-based functional analyses which can play a key role in future crop breeding. This review highlights the proteomic approach elucidating various processes under abiotic stress.

Trehalose is a nonreducing disaccharide composed of two glucose residues bound by an α-α linkage. First reported in 1832 in rye following ergot infection, trehalose has since been detected in a wide range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, invertebrates, and plants. It has role in plant response to various environmental stresses such as cold and salinity, and in regulation of stomatal conductance and water-use efficiency. Trehalose is a potential signal metabolite in plant interactions with pathogenic or symbiotic microorganisms and herbivorous insects. Recently it has been found that trehalose metabolism is also crucial for normal plant growth and development. In plants, as in other eukaryotes and many prokaryotes, trehalose is synthesized via a phosphorylated intermediate, trehalose 6-phosphate (T6P). In plants, trehalose 6-phosphate (T6P), the intermediate of trehalose biosynthesis, is thought to be a signal of sucrose status and current studies point towards the role of T6P as a regulatory molecule, especially in sugar influx and metabolism. A meta-analysis reveals that the levels of T6P changes are in parallel with sucrose, which is the major product of photosynthesis and the main transport sugar in plants. The intermediate T6P is now confirmed to act as a sensor for available sucrose, hereby directly influencing the type of response to the changing environmental conditions. This is possible because T6P and/or trehalose or their biosynthetic enzymes are part of complex interaction networks with other crucial hormone and sugar-induced signaling pathways, which may function at different developmental stages.

The emergence of drug-resistant strains has encouraged several studies on natural products with antifungal activity and low toxicity. In this study, the antifungal effect of methanolic root extract of Juglans regia (JRE) was investigated against 9 strains of Candida (one reference and 8 clinical strains) through MIC90 and spot assays. To gain insight into the mechanism of antifungal action, we carried out confocal scanning laser microscopy (CLSM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and then examined the effect of JRE on hydrolytic enzyme secretion. Additionally, JRE was subjected to various phytochemical tests, chemically characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis (GC-MS) and its toxicity was tested against H9c2 rat cardiac myoblasts. The phytochemical tests showed the presence of phenols, alkaloids, steroids, saponins, and tannins in JRE. In the GC-MS analysis, a total of 40 compounds were identified. JRE was found to be effective in liquid media with MICs ranging from 300 to 700μg/mL. Spot assay results revealed that Candida cells show increased sensitivity to JRE. CSLM experiments showed that cells exposed to JRE (MIC) exhibited cell membrane disruption. TEM micrograph of treated cells showed extensive breakage in the cell wall and cell membrane. Average inhibition of proteinase and phospholipase secretion (of five C. albicans strains) at MIC/2 values of JRE was 45.17%, and 34.29%, respectively. Cellular toxicity of JRE against H9c2 rat cardiac myoblasts was less than 10% at the highest MIC value. These findings encourage further development of JRE.

Solanaceae belongs to that group of families, which are included in almost all angiosperm classifications indicating naturalness of the family. The family being one of the most evolutionarily successful and advanced taxa shows astonishing level of diversity reflected in the form of various types of adaptations. The high level of diversity within the family in addition to other unusual features have reflected in poor understanding of its phylogenetics. Fossil record of angiosperms particularly of Solanaceae) is very meager and relatively recent, so use of morphology and other conventional characters is not convincing in revealing true phylogeny of the family. This all has necessitated using alternative marker types in phylogenetic analysis of the family. Since advent of molecular biology molecular markers have been constantly refined to serve the purpose. Solanaceous species, such as tomato, potato, chilli pepper, tobacco, and petunia serve as model systems for the investigation of molecular and agronomic questions, and the family is the subject of intensive phylogenetic studies that are providing new insights into species boundaries and generic relationships. Results from recent morphological, molecular, and biosystematic research have shed new light on the systematic relationships in the family at virtually all taxonomic levels from subfamily to variety.

The last few decades have seen an alarming rise in fungal infections, which currently represent a global health threat. Despite extensive research towards the development of new antifungal agents, only a limited number of antifungal drugs are available in the market. The routinely used polyene agents and many azole antifungals are associated with some common side effects such as severe hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Also, antifungal resistance continues to grow and evolve and complicate patient management, despite the introduction of new antifungal agents. This suitation requires continuous attention. Cinnamaldehyde has been reported to inhibit bacteria, yeasts, and filamentous molds via the inhibition of ATPases, cell wall biosynthesis, and alteration of membrane structure and integrity. In this regard, several novel cinnamaldehyde derivatives were synthesized with the claim of potential antifungal activities. The present article describes antifungal properties of cinnamaldehyde and its derivatives against diverse classes of pathogenic fungi. This review will provide an overview of what is currently known about the primary mode of action of cinnamaldehyde. Synergistic approaches for boosting the effectiveness of cinnamaldehyde and its derivatives have been highlighted. Also, a keen analysis of the pharmacologically active systems derived from cinnamaldehyde has been discussed. Finally, efforts were made to outline the future perspectives of cinnamaldehyde-based antifungal agents. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of current knowledge about the antifungal properties and antifungal mode of action of cinnamaldehyde and its derivatives and to identify research avenues that can facilitate implementation of cinnamaldehyde as a natural antifungal.