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The present study aims to understand whether and how social media use negatively affected Asian Americans’ mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. We build on previous research on media framing, stigma, and stereotyping to understand whether social media messages about Asians as culprits to blame for the pandemic, direct experiences of racism, or media coverage of victims of anti-Asian hate crimes led to mental health outcomes for this racial group. We use an online survey of Asian American participants (N = 527) conducted in 2020 to test the role of (a) mediated ethnic blame (MEB), (b) direct stigma, and (c) indirect stigma in explaining the relationship between social media use and mental health among Asian Americans during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our results demonstrate that mediated ethnic blame, but not direct or indirect stigma experiences, is associated with Asian Americans’ mental health. Implications for media framing, health communication, and journalism are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Misidentification and misreporting of hate crimes by victims and law enforcement are significant barriers to accurate data collection of hate crimes, and their consequent study and prevention. The use of machine learning in crime detection can improve the accuracy and speed at which reported incidents with bias elements are identified. This study develops a machine learning classifier that categorizes police reports as either events with bias elements or events with no bias elements. We use incident/offense reports from the Seattle Police Department to train a Natural Language Processing classification algorithm. We collect narratives, location data, and victim and suspect demographics to use as features. We evaluate the performance of logistic regression, random forest, and XGBoost algorithms, as well as several text embedding techniques. Despite substantial class imbalance, our model achieves a macro F1-score of 0.79, demonstrating the benefits of applied machine learning in accurately detecting and reporting hate crimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The victims of anti-LGBT hate crimes may have particularly negative experiences which affect their mental health and wellbeing. These incidents affect the victims’ self-esteem, dignity and identity, and they also affect indirect victims in similar ways. As opposed to retributive justice, restorative justice may offer a more satisfactory justice experience for those affected, by addressing the harm caused to them. This is due to the fact that restorative processes require flexibility, adequacy and tailor-made design. Drawing on findings from a multi-site qualitative study conducted in six European countries, this article discusses the perceptions and experiences of key professionals regarding the potential of restorative justice to provide for victims of anti-LGBT hate crimes, particularly in relation to repairing the individual and collective harm caused by such crimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is an exploratory study presenting empirically based analyses of gender-based hate crime policy and practice from the perspectives of law enforcement officials in Ireland and England and Wales, in the United Kingdom. Despite increasing awareness of victims of gender-based hate crimes, robust legislation and successful investigation and prosecution of these offences remain rare. By developing a critical, evidence-based understanding of the factors impeding effective investigation of gender-based hate crimes, this research provides an early foundation for a more rigorous, survivor-centred approach. This article examines and problematises concepts and norms relating to gender-based hate crimes in law and policy. It analyses the significance of gender in hate crime legislation and examines the relationship between gender-based violence and gender-based hate crimes. Drawing on two case studies, this article suggests ways to refine and redirect law enforcement efforts to improve the quality of outcomes in criminal cases and the quality of survivors' experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study addresses the question what makes hate crime incidents newsworthy and which factors are conducive to such incidents being reported on. Relying on news value theory, we identify criteria (cultural proximity, conflict) that explain why some hate crimes make the news and why others do not. We use a dataset of police-registered hate crimes in the Netherlands in 2017 (N = 3379). This is the entire population of hate crimes that the police reported in the whole country. This allows us to disentangle dynamics of the news selection process and identify bias. We find that both target group and type of hate crime affect the newsworthiness: hate crimes with victims targeted due to religious motives (Islamophobia, anti-Semitism) are more likely to be covered; hate crimes based on sexual orientation, gender and ethnicity are less likely to pass the gates. Hate crimes that are more conflictual in nature (i.e., violent hate crimes, vandalism) are more likely to be covered too. These selection effects likely have important effects on public awareness and political reactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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An individual's fear of hate crime victimization might be partially explained by direct experiences that influence their assessment of victimization risk. In some cases, though, fear of hate crime victimization is driven not by direct, personal experiences, but by historical and contemporary trauma suffered by those holding the targeted status. Using data from the 2019 nationally representative Experiences with Religious Discrimination Study (ERDS) survey, we show that part of Jewish and Muslim adults' greater fears of victimization is explained by their past personal victimization experiences, their knowledge of close friends and family who have been victimized, and their greater religious visibility. Still, even after accounting for these factors, Jewish and Muslim adults report greater fears of religious hate crime victimization compared to Christian adults. We attribute this residual fear to the culture of anti-Semitism and Islamophobia within the United States and violence attributable to that culture, as well as the collective memory of historical religion-based victimization of Muslim and Jewish communities. These findings suggest the collective memory and knowledge of contemporary religious victimization may continue to affect Jewish and Muslim adults via a mechanism of fear, which has implications for scholarly and policy efforts to decrease religious victimization and its impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hate-motivated crime remains problematic in the United States. California passed the first hate crime law in 1978; Congress followed in 1990. States continue to amend their hate crime legislation, producing an amalgam of statutory provisions. This article creates a conceptual framework from which to classify hate crime legislation across the 50 states and Washington, DC. Laws were identified through Westlaw. Analyses compared the types of crimes covered, discrete and insular minorities protected, prosecutorial alternatives, mandates for law enforcement agencies, and additional rights provided to victims among states' legislation. Considerable variation in scope and content of hate crime legislation exists among states, leaving several vulnerable groups unprotected, law enforcement underprepared, and victim rights and resources sparse. Future directions for hate crime policy and legislation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research and official statistics alike identify women from racial minorities as a high-risk group for racial hate crime. Still, the construction of women in racial hate crime remains largely unstudied and the current knowledge on racial hate crime against women can at best be described as fragmentary. Therefore, aim of the present study is to explore the constructions of race and gender from the perspective of female victims of racial hate crime. The study draws on intersectional theory and consists of a discourse analysis based on nine interviews with women who have been targets of racial hate crime. The results show that the construction of race in hate crimes targeting women differs distinctively from the construction of race in hate crimes targeting men. The female victims of racial hate crime often find themselves entangled in racial power struggles between men: a power struggle in which men may show their status vis-á-vis out-group men by sexually controlling or abusing women. Thereby, women's bodies are used as a tool in racial status conflicts between groups of men, as identities, scripts, and stereotypes found primarily within conservatism and right-wing ideology are enacted on the bodies of the victims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We estimate the prevalence and characteristics of violent hate crime victimization of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in the United States, and we compare them to non-LGBT hate crime victims and to LGBT victims of violent non-hate crime. We analyze pooled 2017-2019 data from the National Crime Victimization Survey (n persons = 553, 925;n incidents = 32, 470), the first nationally representative and comprehensive survey on crime that allows identification of LGBT persons aged 16 or older. Descriptive and bivariate analysis show that LGBT people experienced 6.6 violent hate crime victimizations per 1,000 persons compared with non-LGBT people's 0.6 per 1,000 persons (odds ratio = 8.30, 95% confidence interval = 1.94, 14.65). LGBT people were more likely to be hate crime victims of sexual orientation or gender bias crime and less likely to be victims of race or ethnicity bias crimes compared to non-LGBT hate crime victims. Compared to non-LGBT victims, LGBT victims of hate crime were more likely to be younger, have a relationship with their assailant, and have an assailant who is white. Compared to LGBT victims of non-hate violence, more LGBT hate crime victims reported experiencing problems in their social lives, negative emotional responses, and physical symptoms of distress. Our findings affirm claims that hate crimes have adverse physical and psychological effects on victims and highlight the need to ensure that LGBT persons who experience hate crime get necessary support and services in the aftermath of the crime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary purpose of the current study was to understand immigrant hate crime victimization in the U.S. Specifically, the authors analyzed the most recent data from the National Crime Victimization Survey to explore the factors that influence hate crime experiences and reporting by immigrant victims. Results from the binary logistic regression analyses revealed significant relationships between immigration status, citizenship status, number of prior incidents experienced as well as certain demographic characteristics and being the victim of a hate crime. Overall, being an immigrant or non-citizen, was associated with an increase in odds of being the victim of a hate crime. In terms of victims' reporting of hate crime, immigration status had no impact, but the number of incidents experienced, being married and being less educated significantly increased reporting among victims. Numerous recommendations are provided, however, the most important step forward is the creation of a legal status category within the UCR's Hate Crime data collection coupled with several legal protections for victims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Vast discrepancies between official hate crime statistics and victim reports of hate crimes reveal that a large proportion of hate crimes go uncharged. LGBTQ individuals may be disinclined to report hate crimes because of safety concerns and perceived hostility from law enforcement, and law enforcement may be reluctant to pursue them because of discomfort interacting with LGBTQ people and lack of clear guidance in building hate crime cases. Methods and Analytical Approach: To address the problem of anti-LGBTQ hate crime underreporting, quantitative and qualitative data were collected in the Miami-Dade area including (a) prosecutorial case files from 2005 to 2019 and (b) semi-structured interviews with law enforcement practitioners (n = 10) and (c) structured interviews with LGBTQ crime victims (n = 400), carried out in 2018–2019. Findings and Recommendations for Policy and Practice: Triangulated findings reveal that police and prosecutors lack the capacity to detect hate crimes and to engage with the LGBTQ community and crime victims. Victims and community members worried about retaliation and discounted some victim experiences as hate crimes. Responding to the research findings, a working group of 23 local stakeholders representing Miami's LGBTQ community, advocacy groups, police, and prosecutor's office produced seven recommendations addressing: (1) hate crime detection, (2) interagency coordination, (3) victim engagement, (4) communication and awareness building, (5) training of law enforcement practitioners, (6) data and research, and (7) changes to the hate crime statute. Conclusion: These recommendations offer a path forward for a more effective detection and prosecution of hate crimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research is to determine the social representation that, of the trans collective, builds the advertising of Pantene in the ad: "Recreated family photo". The campaign is novel because it aims to combat stereotypes imposed by society in relation to physical appearance and because it works with a minority of the LGTBIQ+ community, prone to being victims of hate crimes. The content analysis carried outallows us to conclude that although the message aims to positively influence both trans people and society, an incomplete social representation of the collective is still offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anti-Asian hate crimes have increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet, no research has considered whether crime reporting patterns are different among Asian hate crime victims, relative to other victims. Following this, this research presents an examination of differences in reporting victimization to the police between Asian and non-Asian victims using information from 997 respondents who experienced a hate crime in the first 1 to 2 months of the pandemic. Results indicate that Asian victims are significantly and substantially less likely to report victimization to the police than other victims. Taken together, these results suggest that current estimates of increases in anti-Asian hate crime based on official crime statistics—although high—may actually be an under-estimation of the true extent of the problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article surveys the ways in which contemporary Greek poetry unveils human rights abuses in Greek society in order to push for law and social policy reforms that protect gender identity, expression, and freedom as well as holding governments and institutions accountable for their enforcement. In the context of feminist, anti-fascist, and queer rights activism in Greek culture and society, this analysis discusses how poetry that exposes femicide and queer violence challenges the provisions of both Greek law and the universality of human rights. Stemming from post-human feminist and queer critiques of dominant ethno-patriarchal structures, poetry becomes a medium of collective mourning, public commemoration, and justice-seeking for victims of hate crime, homophobia, racism, and misogyny. For the past decade, such interventions have reinforced the formation of a counter-archive of poetry responding to the aftermath of violence and hatred levelled at LGBTQ communities, women, and immigrants in Greece. Aiming at rendering visible the lives and deaths of victims of gender-based violence such as Zak Kostopoulos/ Zackie Oh, Eleni Topaloudi, and Vaggelis Giakoumakis, this article seeks also to examine how the horizon of poetry can be reformulated as one of social sustainability that interrogates the crisis of biopolitical survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hate crime victims involved in a criminal procedure experience difficulties that are different from problems encountered by other victims. In trying to meet the specific procedural needs of hate crime victims many EU Member States have introduced protective measures and services in criminal proceedings, but the adopted approaches are widely disparate. By reporting the results of an EU-wide comparative survey into hate crime victims within national criminal procedures the authors aim to: (1) make an inventory of the national (legal) definitions of hate crime and the protection measures available (on paper) for hate crime victims; and (2) critically discuss certain national choices, inter alia by juxtaposing the procedural measures to the procedural needs of hate crime victims to see if there are any lacunae from a victimological perspective. The authors conclude that the Member States should consider expanding their current corpus of protection measures in order to address some of the victims’ most urgent needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For certain crimes there is a tendency in the United States to blame individuals for their victimization. Previous work has shown that affective states can impact blame attribution. Drawing upon this work, the purpose of the current pre‐registered research was to examine the relation between affective disgust and victim blame attribution. In Study 1, as participants' (N = 203) level of implicit disgust associations with gay men increased, their tendency to blame a gay male homicide victim also increased, whereas their agreement that the homicide qualified as a hate crime decreased. In Study 2, disgust was experimentally induced by exposing participants (N = 431) to disgusting (e.g., vomit, insects) or neutral images (e.g., mug, stapler). Inducing disgust increased victim blame and decreased perceptions that the homicide constituted a hate crime. However, exploratory mediation analyses in both studies showed that the impact of disgust on hate crime applications is best explained as an indirect effect of victim blame. Taken together, these findings suggest that both individual differences in implicit gay‐disgust and situational feelings of disgust may underlie people's perceptions of how blameworthy a victim is for the crime committed against them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on restorative justice as a form of contestation against the retributive Western justice system. The emergence of the concept of restorative justice is strongly linked to the development of victimology and the movement fighting for a greater involvement of victims in the criminal proceedings. Embedded in the pattern of oppositions associated with retributive and restorative justice - conflict versus dialogue, power versus community, punishment versus responsibility - are motifs that point to the complexity of the matter of dispute resolution. The article is based on the results of research carried out in the frame of the project „Protecting and Defending the Rights of Victims of Anti-LGBT Hate Crimes: Innovative Paths through Restorative Justice (LetsGoByTalking)". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on the rise of hate crimes, misogyny and xenophobia against Asian American communities in the U.S. in the midst of the pandemic. Topics discussed include documentary films that trace the history of Asian American racism faced by immigrants, the surge in anti-Asian posts on social media platforms like Twitter, and the development of communities of practice among journalists.

Immigrant and minority youth are at risk of ethnic victimization. Despite an increasing number of studies that aim to understand the consequences of such negativity, relatively little attention has been paid to understanding who the perpetrators of ethnic victimization are. To address this gap in knowledge, the present study examined whether youth who victimize their peers due to their ethnic background are also those who engage in non-ethnicity-based victimization. The study also investigated the underlying factors, i.e., impulsivity, empathy, moral disengagement, and attitudes toward immigrants, that are common or specific to groups of youth. The sample included 949 adolescents residing in Sweden (Mage = 13.11, SD = 0.41; range: 12–15; 46% girls). Cluster analysis revealed four distinct groups of adolescents, based on their reports of ethnic and non-ethnicity-based victimization: (1) low on both forms of victimization, (2) high on ethnic victimization only, (3) high on non-ethnicity-based victimization only, and (4) high on both forms of victimization. The results showed that being morally disengaged is a common denominator of ethnic and non-ethnicity-based victimizers. Difficulties in regulating impulses and lack of perspective-taking skills trigger youth's engagement in non-ethnicity-based victimization. Lack of empathic concerns and low levels of positive attitudes toward immigrants are the bases of ethnic victimization. Together, these findings suggest that the precursors of ethnic and non-ethnicity-based victimization have similarities as well as differences, which require further attention in developing programs aimed at preventing different forms of peer victimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study gathered 197 participants, interviewed within 48 hours of being victims of Hate Crime. This immediate follow-up should ensure accurate responses. The responses of the victims were compared to that of 113 Welsh front-line staff who respond to and support such victims. The barriers to reporting are found to be broadly similar with the findings of other UK studies. A considerable difference in understanding of the barriers to reporting hate crime was found between the victims and support services. The main reason given for non-reporting was common: the poor service, attitude and treatment from the police. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hundreds of violent incidents of anti‐immigrant hate crimes have been recorded in South Africa over the past two decades. Understanding how the public views this issue helps us better understand how it can be resolved. The paper identifies determinants of public attitudes towards anti‐xenophobia strategies. Data from the South African Social Attitudes Survey for the period 2015–2018 were used for this study. Using these data, the link between anti‐immigrant sentiment and lay attributes of anti‐immigrant violence can be mapped. The results show that most citizens externalise the causes of this kind of hate crime and blame the victims (i.e., foreigners) for the conflict. What people believe about the etiology of an intergroup conflict was found to influence their desire for conflict resolution as well as the type of solutions preferred. Victim blaming was found to predict the adoption of prejudicial solutions to anti‐immigrant hate crime (such as the mass expulsion of foreign nationals). If an individual attributed the violence to the internal attributes (e.g., emotional factors or beliefs about foreign nationals) of the perpetrators, they were more likely to adopt progressive solutions (such as education and awareness campaigns). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hate is a global phenomenon as evidenced by recent increases in hate crimes in both the United States and the United Kingdom; unfortunately, these crimes are also substantially underreported in both nations. Following this, this research presents an examination of racially motivated hate crimes and victim reporting to the police in both nations using data from the National Crime Victimization Survey and the Crime Survey of England and Wales from 2003 to 2015. Results indicate that, overall, victim reporting has been increasing in the United Kingdom and decreasing in the United States. Disaggregating by victim and offender race, however, reveals divergent trends such that anti-black hate crime victim reporting is increasing in the United States and decreasing in the United Kingdom. Policy and research implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to explore how notions of gender and sexualities influence state and voluntary agencies' understanding of men as victims of rape. It aims to examine the roles of gender, sexualities, and hate crime in male rape discourse, particularly examining the concept of male rape as a form of hate crime. I draw on data that consist of police officers, male rape counsellors, therapists, and voluntary agency caseworkers (N = 70) to explore male rape fuelled by hatred in the North, South and West of England. I used 25 semi-structured interviews and 45 qualitative questionnaires to collate the data. I ensured that those who were interviewed did not also fill out a questionnaire. The findings suggest that there is a link between male rape and hate crime, in that gay men or men presumed to be gay are positioned as feminine and subordinate through the act of rape. The findings suggest that the study of hate crime ought to be expanded to include male rape victims because my research suggests that, in some cases, hatred might be involved during an incident of rape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

LGBT-related hate crime is a conscious act of aggression against an LGBT citizen. The present research investigates associations between hate crime, psychological well-being, trust in the police and intentions to report future experiences of hate crime. A survey study was conducted among 391 LGBT respondents in the Netherlands. Sixteen percent experienced hate crime in the 12 months prior. Compared to nonvictims, victims had significant lower psychological well-being, lower trust in the police and lower intentions to report future hate crime. Hate crime experience and lower psychological well-being were associated with lower reporting intentions through lower trust in the police. Helping hate crime victims cope with psychological distress in combination with building trust in the police could positively influence future reporting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hate crimes are notoriously under-reported, and the present research explores possible etiological factors for this phenomenon in a national Canadian sample. Controlling for demographic and off ence characteristics, the research shows that victims who had prior experiences with police discrimination were significantly less likely to report hate crimes to police compared to victims of non-hate-based crimes. Additionally, victims experienced hate crimes in a more intersectional way than is typically reflected in police reports, as victims tended to interpret the offence as targeting multiple overlapping identities rather than a solitary hate motivation. Th ese fi ndings reflect the unique nature of hate-motivated off ences, whose victims may find it futile to report bias-motivated offences to a police force whom they believe is itself biased. These results suggest possible opportunities to improve reporting of offences and relations between police and marginalized communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study aimed to augment the scant body of literature on anti-LGBTQ hate by providing an in-depth examination of anti-LGBTQ hate incident situational characteristics including offender substance use, number of offenders, crime location, and victim-offender relationship. Analysis of situational dynamic variables provided support for the notion that anti-LGBTQ hate is a distinct type of criminal incident. Significantly increased levels of offender substance use, crimes perpetrated by multiple offenders, crimes perpetrated by acquaintances, and crimes taking place in open spaces substantiates the theory that anti-LGBTQ hate is qualitatively unique, typified by different characteristics than other forms of crime. The data in this study also supports that anti-LGBTQ hate is not a homogenous phenomenon. Significant numbers of anti-LGBTQ hate incidents committed by known offenders including friends, family, and intimates, and crimes committed in private locations such as residences suggest that multiple dynamic processes may underlie this type of crime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the seminal 1999 Macpherson report, hate crime has become a barometer for contemporary police relations with vulnerable and marginalised communities. The need to understand hate has resulted in a demand for impartial law enforcement and skilled police officers who appreciate the nuances of hatred and its impact on vulnerable populations. However, whilst the police are increasingly expected to be active agents in the response to hate crime, they continue to be criticised for over-policing and under-protecting certain communities. This paper examines the insights of key stakeholders involved in policing anti-Muslim hate crime in a northern town in England, gathered through in-depth semi-structured interviews with the region's police force and a third-sector agency. The paper unpacks what the policing of anti-Muslim hate crime entails, drawing upon the role of different agencies and providing lessons for the services involved in the current police-led model. Our results point to variability in understanding what constitutes anti-Muslim hate crime; challenges in understanding and responding to victims' needs with limited resources; and the need for a system which extends beyond a criminal justice response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

B Chapter 3 b seeks to operationalise what is discussed in chapter 2, by introducing two primary Hate Crime data collection systems at a national level; the UCR Hate Crime Statistics Program and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) as well as three other surveys, which measure hate crimes in educational establishments. B Chapter 2 b is constructed in three parts, i) how hate crime was conceptualised ii) what constitutes a hate incident, distinct from hate crime iii) how hate crimes are legally defined. "The Measurement of Hate Crimes in America", by Professors Frank Pezella and Matthew Fetzer, provides a critical appraisal of hate crime in the United States. [Extracted from the article]