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Revealing the microscopic dynamics, including protonic quantum effects, in aqueous electrolyte solutions has been a challenge for modern experimental methods and molecular dynamics simulations of the past decade. These properties are out of the scope of the standard electrolytic dissociation model and leave a gap between theory and experiment due to the lack of details of the fast molecular dynamics during solvation. We report a dielectric-spectroscopy study (1Hz to 20 GHz), which unambiguously demonstrates a net difference in the dynamic structures of weak and strong electrolytes, shedding new light on the mechanism of solvation via proton exchange reactions. Based on these data, we suggest an extension of Arrhenius’ seminal model, providing a more accurate description of the electrical properties of electrolytes over a wide range of concentrations (10$^{-7}$ to 10 M). We show that dissolved species of weak electrolytes more likely interact with each other than with the solvent, preventing dissociation and explaining a sharp difference between weak and strong electrolytes. These results extend our understanding of the molecular dynamics of aqueous electrolyte solutions in biology, electrochemical systems, and nanofluidics.

The response of water to electromagnetic waves is critical for many areas of science, but it still hides many open questions regarding the microscopic dynamic structure of water, which is yet to be elucidated. Here, the broadband dielectric response of water, ice, heavy water and water vapor is discussed in the extended 0-1015 Hz frequency range, and a unified microscopic interpretation is provided for the main spectral features of all condensed phases of water. A simple analytical equation describing the spectra up to 10 THz is provided. Further questions on the dynamic structure of water are addressed.

The KORSAR/CFD code results from the development of the KORSAR/GP system code certified in 2009 by the Rostekhnadzor (Federal Service for Ecological, Technological, and Nuclear Supervision) as applied to the calculated justification of the safety for VVER reactors. One of the important aspects of the development consists in the introduction of the CFD-module code into functional content for the simulation of spatial turbulent flows in the mixing chambers of reactors using a nested boundary method in the RANS-approximation. The CFD module is combined with a 1D model according to a semi-implicit scheme as a standard code element. Based on the calculations performed for three modes with an asymmetrical equipment operation in the heat-transfer loops of the VVER-1000 reactor, cross-verification has been performed for a 3D model in the CFD approximation, and a quasi-3D-multichannel model of the KORSAR/CFD computation code for the reactor pressure chamber. For cross-verification, the following modes have been chosen: breaking steam pipeline in a steam generator, connecting the main circulation pump while initially operating three pumps at the reactor power of 71% with respect to the nominal value, connecting a pump while initially operating two opposite pumps at the reactor power of 52% with respect to the nominal value. The scenario of the chosen modes is characterized by a decrease in the heat-carrier temperature at the entry into the pressure chamber from a single loop, which leads to an asymmetric increase in the reactor power with respect to the fuel assemblies owing to a negative reactivity effect. It is shown that, because of the artificial increase in the resistance to the downward heat-carrier flow along the channels that represent a pressure chamber in the multichannel calculation scheme, the reproduction of a spatial in-chamber flow pattern obtained using the 3D model of the chamber and its effect exerted on temperature change in the course of the heat-carrier stirring have been gained. The results of calculation using this scheme are in good agreement with data obtained by means of the 3D simulation of the pressure chamber in the CFD approximation in all the considered modes. A sensitivity of the calculation results with respect to changes in the calculation scheme under using the quasi-3D multichannel model of the reactor chamber is demonstrated.

The KORSAR/CFD code results from the development of the KORSAR/GP system code certified in 2009 by the Rostekhnadzor (Federal Service for Ecological, Technological, and Nuclear Supervision) as applied to the calculated justification of the safety for VVER reactors. One of the important aspects of development consists in the introduction of the CFD-module code into functional content for the simulation of spatial turbulent flows in the mixing chambers of reactors using a nested boundary method in the RANS-approximation. The CFD module is combined with a one-dimensional model according to a semi-implicit scheme as a standard code element. Calculation results using the KORSAR/CFD code are presented for the following three modes with the asymmetrical operation of a VVER-1000 reactor’s flow-circuit loops. They consist in breaking the steam pipeline in the steam generator, in connecting the main circulation pump while initially operating three pumps at the reactor power of 71% with respect to the nominal one, and in connecting a pump while initially operating two opposite pumps at the reactor power of 52% with respect to the nominal one. The calculations have been carried out based on the input data file for the NPP power unit with a VVER-1000 developed by the specialists in VVER design at OKB Gidropress, the Chief Designer in the field of VVER reactor units. A three-dimensional simulation of coupled neutron-physical and thermohydraulic processes in the reactor core has been performed. A thermohydraulic model of the reactor core has been used in a channel-by-channel approximation and a program block for the calculation of three-dimensional neutron kinetics. In the problems under consideration, the three-dimensional simulation domain for the CFD module includes four inlet manifolds and a part of the reactor pressure chamber before entering the holes in the elliptical bottom of the shaft. The holes in the elliptical bottom and the area beyond the shaft up to the outlet manifolds have been represented by the elements of a one-dimensional model. Based on the results of the calculations, the heat-carrier flow pattern in the reactor pressure chamber has been analyzed. A flow pattern effect exerted on the dynamics of the liquid temperature distribution at the entry into the fuel assemblies of the core and on the energy release power of the fuel assemblies in the simulated modes has been demonstrated.

In the real world water and ice always have boundaries, being confined by the solid or liquid materials, representing the sample in contact with a gas, vacuum, another liquid, or serving as a solvent of electrolyte solution. Interestingly, the properties of such “finite” water, ice, or aqueous media, can differ from those for the theoretical boundless water. In this chapter, we discuss the electrical properties of aqueous electrolytes, the electrodynamics of confined water, the effect of a strong electric field on water viscosity, and the electrification of water droplets, and other systems where the role of boundaries on the properties of water is important, in an external electric field. The questions regarding the role of water in atmospheric phenomena, and the future of the aqueous electrochemical energy systems (fuel cells, supercapacitors, flow batteries, electrolyzers) are discussed.

The electrodynamic properties of water are inextricably linked with its structure and molecular dynamics. This chapter discusses a phenomenological approach that provides a microscopic description of the various electrodynamic parameters of water and ice on the same basis. The parameters related to the microscopic dynamics of water (such as the molecular lifetime, the rate of proton exchange, autoprotolysis, and the mechanism of dielectric polarization) are discussed in fine details and compared with those derived from independent experimental data. The microscopic description of the phenomenon of dielectric relaxation and an explanation for the anomalous behavior of dielectric constant are given. In addition, questions on why microwaves are absorbed by water and pass through other dielectrics, and why pH is so dependent on temperature are addressed.

The details of the structure of water are important for understanding its dielectric properties and vice versa, because the nuclei and electrons of water particles are, in essence, charges interacting with each other and with external fields. Although water has been studied like no other substance, its atomic-molecular dynamics (both individual and collective) are still under discussion. Bernal–Fowler 100-year-old paradigm, based on early diffraction data, requires critical analysis. In this chapter, I consider the history of the notion of “water structure,” which includes several milestones related to the appearance of particular experimental and theoretical methods. I discuss early electrical conductivity measurements, X-ray diffraction and neutron scattering techniques, pH measurements, isotopic tracer diffusion, nuclear magnetic resonance, and simulations of molecular dynamics. All these techniques and methods have significantly contributed to the development of the concept of hydrogen bonding in water and related substances. However, recent studies have shown that classic models still fail to reproduce the basic electrodynamic parameters of water and ice, and need to be improved.

The physicochemical distinction between ice and water determines processes of various scales from the adaptation of living organisms to the formation of planets. The electrodynamic properties are not an exclusion: despite the fact that only two types of atoms (oxygen and hydrogen) are involved in the ice and water structures, their dielectric responses are quite different. This chapter focuses on the dielectric properties of ice over a wide frequency range, which are compared to that of water. The similarities between ice and water are discussed within a universal microscopic mechanism of their dielectric response that is suitable for both thermodynamic forms of water. The new approach allows one to model the spectra from DC to the terahertz region on the same footing and provides new insights into our understanding of the molecular dynamics in ice and water.

Water is the most important substance in our everyday life, and has been studied as no other medium. While it has a relatively simple atomic composition, water nevertheless presents an astonishing variety of manifestations of its interaction with electromagnetic waves of the different wavelengths from radio frequencies to X-rays, representing its uniqueness compared to other dielectrics. In this chapter, the response of water to external electromagnetic radiation is considered in an extended frequency range from 0 to 10\(^{15}\) Hz. The independent view on the separate parts of the spectrum, such as the dielectric constant, DC conductivity, radio wave, microwave, terahertz, and IR absorption, is provided along with a comprehensive view on the entire spectrum as a whole by means of sum rules, Kramers–Kronig analysis and the isotope effect. A curious reader will find a complete description of water’s electrodynamic parameters, as well as specific questions regarding the dynamic structure of water.

Chemical polarity governs various mechanical, chemical and thermodynamic properties of dielectrics. Polar liquids have been amply studied, yet the basic mechanisms underpinning their dielectric properties remain not fully understood, as standard models following Debye's phenomenological approach do not account for quantum effects and cannot aptly reproduce the full dc-up-to-THz spectral range. Here, using the illustrative case of monohydric alcohols, we show that deep tunneling and the consequent intermolecular separation of excess protons and "proton-holes" in the polar liquids govern their static and dynamic dielectric properties on the same footing. We performed systematic ultrabroadband (0-10 THz) spectroscopy experiments with monohydric alcohols of different (0.4-1.6 nm) molecular lengths, and show that the finite lifetime of molecular species, and the proton-hole correlation length are the two principle parameters responsible for the dielectric response of all the studied alcohols across the entire frequency range. Our results demonstrate that a quantum non-rotational intermolecular mechanism drives the polarization in alcohols while the rotational mechanism of molecular polarization plays a secondary role, manifesting itself in the sub-terahertz region only.

The most common species in liquid water, next to neutral $$\hbox {H}_2\hbox {O}$$H2O molecules, are the $$\hbox {H}_3\hbox {O}^+$$H3O+ and $$\hbox {OH}^-$$OH- ions. In a dynamic picture, their exact concentrations depend on the time scale at which these are probed. Here, using a spectral-weight analysis, we experimentally resolve the fingerprints of the elusive fluctuations-born short-living $$\hbox {H}_3\hbox {O}^+$$H3O+, $$\hbox {DH}_2\hbox {O}^+$$DH2O+, $$\hbox {HD}_2\hbox {O}^+$$HD2O+, and $$\hbox {D}_3\hbox {O}^+$$D3O+ ions in the IR spectra of light ($$\hbox {H}_2\hbox {O}$$H2O), heavy ($$\hbox {D}_2\hbox {O}$$D2O), and semi-heavy (HDO) water. We find that short-living ions, with concentrations reaching $$\sim 2\%$$∼2% of the content of water molecules, coexist with long-living pH-active ions on the picosecond timescale, thus making liquid water an effective ionic liquid in femtochemistry.

Water at the solid-liquid interface exhibits an anomalous ionic conductivity and dielectric constant compared to bulk water. Both phenomena still lack a detailed understanding. Here, we report radiofrequency measurements and analyses of the electrodynamic properties of interfacial water confined in nano-porous matrices formed by diamond grains of various sizes, ranging from 5 nm to 0.5 μm in diameter. Contrary to bulk water, the charge-carrying protons/holes in interfacial water are not mutually screened allowing for higher mobility in the external electric field. Thus, the protonic conductivity reaches a maximum value, which can be five orders of magnitude higher than that of bulk water. Our results aid in the understanding of physical and chemical properties of water confined in porous materials, and pave the way to the development of new type of highly-efficient proton-conductive materials for applications in electrochemical energy systems, membrane separations science and nano-fluidics.

The absorption spectrum of liquid water in the range of 103–1013 Hz (from dc conductivity of up to 5 THz IR resonance) is completely and uniformly described by a simple physical model. The model assumes the existence in water of a high concentration of H3O+ and OH− ions (up to 4.5% of the total number of molecules) that exchange protons with H2O molecules on the scale of picoseconds.

Though the mechanical properties of ice and water differ, they still have much in common from [...]

The ionization constant of water Kw (or pH) is currently determined on the proton conductivity σ0 which is measured at frequencies lower than 107 Hz. We develop the idea that the high frequency conductivity σ∞ (~1011 Hz), rather than σ0 represents a net proton dynamics in water. We count the concentration c of the H3O+ and OH– ions from σ∞ to find c to be not dependent on temperature. We conclude that spontaneous ionization of H2O molecules is not essential in water electrodynamics; the common Kw reflects the thermoactivation of the H3O+ and OH– ions from the potential of their interaction; the lifetime of a target water molecule does not exceed parts of nanosecond.

The nonresonant component of the dynamic conductivity spectrum of liquid water in the frequency range of 104–1014 Hz is described by a model of free charged particles participating in thermal motion. The background of IR spectrum is represented by the diffusion response of elementary charges in the form of protons, holes, and H3O+ and OH– ions; terahertz loss (1010 Hz) is a response of the same ions in hydrate shells; microwave absorption at frequencies below 107 Hz is represented by the response of the same ions surrounded by the hydrate shell and additionally by the ionic atmosphere.

According to the Arrhenius theory, the ionic conductivity of aqueous electrolytes is realized by the ions of the electrolyte. Water plays a role of a chemically passive substrate. In this paper, we model the electrodynamic response of aqueous HCl, NaOH, and NaCl solutions without invoking notions of electrolyte ions Na+ and Cl–. It is implied that the electrolyte decomposes into molecules and then they chemically react with intrinsic water ions H3O+ and OH–. Fast exchange reactions suppress the interionic interaction and make the H3O+ and OH– ions active in dc conductivity. Within the model, the ionic conductivity of aqueous electrolytes is due to water protons.

The electrical characteristics of ice and water in wide temperature and frequency ranges are analyzed and compared. It is found that the experimental data agree well with the conjecture that the mechanisms of electrical relaxation in ice and water are similar to each other. In particular, it is shown that the theory of electrical relaxation developed for ice gives a quantitative description of the same data for water under the assumption that the activation energy of defects (violations of the ice rule) is lower in water. The reasons for the similarity of electrical relaxation mechanisms and possible applications of such similarity are discussed.

Broadband spectra of ordinary water, heavy water, and ice are analyzed in terms of the dynamic conductivity. It is shown that the spectrum below 1015 Hz satisfies the sum rule for the oscillator strength and is related to the dynamics of the proton/deuteron subsystem in the quasilattice of low-mobility oxygen atoms. Debye relaxation andOHband are represented as a result of the same mechanism, i.e., the proton motion in the harmonic potential averaged over different observation periods.

New insight into the electrical properties of liquid water, from a standpoint of the physics of electrolytes, is proposed. The dielectric spectrum of water at frequencies 104–1011 Hz is described by a simple diffusional model taking into account the electrophoretic and relaxation effects inherent in electrolytes. The static dielectric permittivity and microwave absorption are derived from diffusion of Coulomb interacting H3O+ and OH− ions instead of orientational motion of H2O molecules. The drift component of diffusion provides the proton dc-conductivity. Ion concentration is found to be 7 orders of magnitude higher than commonly accepted (∼1% of the total concentration of H2O molecules). The findings refer to the basic properties of water and therefore can be the key to solving the water-related problems.

We describe an experimental method for studying rapid processes of water vapor sorption by fine-dispersed and porous materials. The concentration of gas-phase water molecules is detected during adsorption by a laser-diode spectrometer. The kinetic pressure curves are recorded in a time window of 10−1 to 103 s and are analyzed using analogy of the diffusion flow with the electric current in a branched RC circuit. The proposed model establishes the relation between the kinetics curves being measured and the structural parameters of the medium.

A device for recording high-speed processes of water-vapor sorption at the surfaces of porous materials is described. The water-vapor pressure over a sample is measured during the sorption process by registering the integral intensity of the absorption line of H2O molecules at a wavelength of 1.85 μm. The kinetic curves of changes in the partial pressure (concentration of H2O molecules) from 1 mTorr to 20 Torr are recorded in a time range from 1 ms to 24 h with an accuracy better than 1% at buffer-gas concentrations of 0–760 Torr. The obtained data are used to determine the sorption and structural parameters of investigated materials.

Terahertz measurements reveal universality of wideband dielectric panoramas for materials of different classes. A conceptually new approach to their understanding in terms of the dynamical conductivity is proposed.

Gas adsorption relaxometry was used to study the effect of high-voltage nanosecond impulses on the structural condition of surfaces and the adsorption properties of sulfide minerals. It was established that the diffusion of water molecules into the samples was anomalous. An increase in time of impact of nanosecond impulses was accompanied by decrease in the time of adsorption equilibration.

During the commercial production of 60 Co at the Leningradskaya nuclear power plant by irradiation of 59 Co in special facilities loaded into a RBMK core, computational means are used to determining the cobalt activity in the irradiation facilities and to decide whether or not they should be extracted. The computational results of the cobalt activity as compared with the experimental data and the effect of refinements in the computational model on them are presented.

In water vapor diffusing through a granular adsorbent layer into vacuum, water molecules overcoming an adsorption column without an appreciable delay as pulses, i.e., precursors of the main front, were detected. This effect is explained by the sluggishness of water molecule diffusion into adsorbent grains and the dependence of the adsorption capacity of molecules on their rotational states via the Stark effect in a surface electric field of an adsorbent.

The output concentration pressure dependences of the water vapor passed in portions through a layer of MN-200 adsorbent whose delay and shape drastically depend on the parameters of introduced portions are determined using diode-laser spectroscopy. A model describing the experimental data and demonstrating the important role of interphase mass-exchange lag in the process of water vapor propagation in a porous-granular medium is proposed.

Deviations of the ortho/para ratio from its normal value (3: 1) were observed by spectral selective detection of ortho and para water molecules when water vapor passed through a column with a nanoporous polymeric adsorbent. The effect was suggested to be related to the nonstationary dynamics of sorption, that is, nonequilibrium character of chromatography. In terms of this model, the factor of spin ortho/para selectivity is slow and unequal diffusion of the spin isomers of water molecules inside the adsorbent, a process spurious for ideal equilibrium chromatography.

The diffusion of water vapor into porous polymer adsorbent MN-200 has been investigated by diode laser spectroscopy with a time resolution of 0.1 s. The cascade character of diffusion, caused presumably by the fractality of the porous matrix space, is established by decomposition analysis. The collisionless (Knudsen) mode of water motion in pores, in which water molecules can be sorted according to their spin states, is selected.

A diode laser spectrometer, which is ment for recording ortho-and paracomposition of water vapor in gas mixtures, is described. The studied mixture is probed by infrared radiation at frequencies of the resonance absorptions of ortho-and paramolecules of water (λ ≈ 1.85 μ m). The recording rate of spectral ortho-and paralines is 2 Hz, and the ortho/para composition is calculated in real time with respect to their integrated intensities. An accuracy of 1% is ensured in a 0.01- to 20-Torr partial pressure range for water vapor and in a 0- to 700-Torr partial pressure range for the buffer gas.

Violation of the normal spin 3: 1 ortho/para ratio in saturated water vapor above a 0.5% water-glycerol solution was detected using the BWO spectroscopy method. The solution was prepared by pumping the initial solution out at room temperature. The effect is supposed to be due to increased fugacity of ortho water molecules from the solution and the corresponding para enrichment of residual water.

Sorption experiments with water/glycerol solution were performed by measuring the ortho/para content in saturated water vapor using the 1-THz BWO spectral method. The results were interpreted as detection (i) of preferential fugacity of ortho molecules from the glycerol surface and (ii) the ability of glycerol to keep the deviation from 3:1 normal ortho/para water ratio for unexpectedly long time (several weeks for 0.5 % water concentration).

New insight into the electrical properties of liquid water, from a standpoint of the physics of electrolytes, is proposed. The dielectric spectrum of water at frequencies 10(4)-10(11) Hz is described by a simple diffusional model taking into account the electrophoretic and relaxation effects inherent in electrolytes. The static dielectric permittivity and microwave absorption are derived from diffusion of Coulomb interacting H3O+ and OH- ions instead of orientational motion of H2O molecules. The drift component of diffusion provides the proton dc-conductivity. Ion concentration is found to be 7 orders of magnitude higher than commonly accepted.(- 1% of the total concentration of H2O molecules). The findings refer to the basic properties of water and therefore can be the key to solving the water-related problems.

The data obtained by impedance spectroscopy (1 Hz to 32 MHz) and broad-band dielectric spectroscopy (30 GHz-150 THz) are presented for crystals based on zirconia doped by 1.5–30 mol % Y2O3 or 10 mol % Sc2O3 and 1 mol % Y2O3. The maximum of ionic conductivity is confirmed for the latter composition in the working temperature range of solid oxide fuel cells where the doping by scandium and yttrium oxides makes it possible to obtain isotropic single crystals. Dependences of dielectric permeability and high-frequency conductivity of materials on the composition of crystals and temperature are presented.

The dependence of the concentration of water molecules in water vapor brought into contact with glycerol surface was measured in a time window of 10−1–103 s. An obvious nonlinearity of water molecule diffusion was found in a short time approximation (within a minute). A proposal is made with regard to the convective character of diffusion due to heat release during absorption.

Software support of radiation technologies being implemented at Leningrad NPP is considered. The procedure of 60 Co build-up data (and their errors) evaluation is demonstrated through calculation of 60 Co build-up rate in an irradiation assembly situated in a core channel at LNPP reactor #4 of RBMK type.

Dielectric spectra (10^4-10^11 Hz) of water and ice at 0 {\deg}C are considered in terms of proton conductivity and compared to each other. In this picture, the Debye relaxations, centered at 1/{\tau}_W ~ 20 GHz (in water) and 1/{\tau}_I ~ 5 kHz (in ice), are seen as manifestations of diffusion of separated charges in the form of H3O+ and OH- ions. The charge separation results from the self-dissociation of H2O molecules, and is accompanied by recombination in order to maintain the equilibrium concentration, N. The charge recombination is a diffusion-controlled process with characteristic lifetimes of {\tau}_W and {\tau}_I, for water and ice respectively. The static permittivity, {\epsilon}(0), is solely determined by N. Both, N and {\epsilon}(0), are roughly constant at the water-ice phase transition, and both increase, due to a slowing down of the diffusion rate, as the temperature is lowered. The transformation of the broadband dielectric spectra at 0 {\deg}C with the drastic change from {\tau}_W to {\tau}_I is mainly due to an abrupt (by 0.4 eV) change of the activation energy of the charge diffusion., Comment: 4 pages, 3 figures

We experimentally demonstrated a possibility of direct laser surface nanostructuring germanium, nickel, platinum silicide, silicon nitride, stainless steel, titanium and zirconia by nanosecond ArF laser multipulse irradiation with the wavelength 193 nm. Similar results were obtained also for titanium and platinum when using nanosecond KrF laser irradiation with wavelength 248 nm. It was found that 5 main types of laser-induced profiles are possible. They correspond to five zones of laser spot when laser intensity decreases with an increase of the distance from the spot centre, i.e. to zones (1) of intense ablative material removal (in the crater in the central part of the spot irradiated with a high intensity), (2) of “deep” laser melt without significant ablative material removal, when melt layer thickness is of the order of 1 μm or few hundreds of nanometers, (3) of “shallow” melt, i.e., at laser intensity around or just above the melting threshold, when melt thickness is small compared to the case (2), (4) of spot periphery outside melting zone, and (5) of original non-irradiated surface. Besides of this, mentioned 5 main reliefs can also be exhibited in the form of corresponding superpositions in various transient regions between mentioned zones. It can give rise to a co-existence in some parts of the spot, for example, of micron and submicron reliefs, or of two different submicron reliefs. The proposed classification of reliefs for the first time unites in one scheme the results of previous papers, where many authors have observed the formation of micron structures under nanosecond laser irradiation, with recent results on studies of laser-induced submicron reliefs (or nanostructures). The physical mechanisms for formation of mentioned reliefs are proposed. The experimental manifestations of these reliefs in standing and moving laser spots are demonstrated and discussed.

The electrodynamic response of water confined in nanoporous MCM-41 is measured in the frequency range 1 MHz–3 THz at room temperature. The results are analyzed in the context of a recently proposed ionic model of water. We found an increase in dc-conductivity of confined water by 3 orders of magnitude (3.3 10−3 Ω−1 m−1) compared to bulk water (5.5 10−6 Ω−1 m−1). This is attributed to the increase of H3O+ and OH− ion mobility, due to a decrease of the effective potential amplitude by walls of the confining environment. We found that the absorption in the microwave frequency range is much smaller in the medium with confined water than in the bulk water, and the quadratic dependence of the conductivity (σ) on frequency (ω) becomes less steep and tends to σ ~ ω. The results are of fundamental importance and can be used for understanding of the proton transport in systems with water in the nanoconfined state.

The necessity of studying the dynamic stabilization of the human body vertical position is substantiated. New capacities of a stabilometric vector analysis in diagnosing equilibrium dysfunction, evaluating the efficiency of treatment, and determining the statistical significance of differences in the results in a patient rather than in a group of subjects are shown.

According to the Arrhenius theory, the ionic conductivity of aqueous electrolytes is realized by the electrolyte ions. Water is considered to be a chemically inactive environmental media. Here, we succeeded in modeling the ionic dc conductivity and dielectric constant of aqueous HCl, NaOH and NaCl solutions without considering Na+ and Cl− ions. Instead, we assumed that i) water has a high concentration of the intrinsic H3O+ and OH− ions (much larger than it is implied by ), masked in the dc conductivity by the electrophoretic effect, i.e. by a strong ion-ion attraction, and ii) the chemical interaction between the electrolyte molecules and the water ions happens to break down the electrophoretic effect, thus "activating" the water ions for the dc conductivity. The hypothesis about the active role of water in the conductivity of electrolytes may look controversial, but nevertheless it consistently accounts for a set of basic empirical data and is therefore worth examining.

The structure of pure water is commonly viewed as an openwork matrix of hydrogen-bonded H2O molecules with a Debye relaxation dynamics. The matrix is filled with free ions of low concentration, which makes water a weak electrolyte with pH = 7. Traditionally, the Debye relaxation is considered having no relevance to the dc water conductivity (or the pH index): while the Debye relaxation is caused by the dynamics of intact H2O molecules, the dc conductivity, in contrast, is due to self-dissociation of H2O into H3O+ and OH- ions. Here, we consider a microscopic mechanism, which could unify the Debye and the dc dynamics, namely the Brownian-like motion of strongly interacting ions. The model comprehensively describes the low-energy electrodynamics of water (up to 1011Hz) giving however an unexpected outcome: water behaves as if it had far more free ions than the standard model assumes. High concentration of counter charges results in a polarization structure of water. We recognize full well that such a radical model is contrary to many years of research on the dynamics, thermodynamics, and dielectric properties of water; but the results seem logically consistent and may prove stimulating.

The authors have studied the efficiency of new blood substitutes (polyoxidin and mafusol) in complex infusion-transfusion therapy in operations on lungs. During surgical interventions these medications were administered in doses of 717.0 +/- 30.0 ml and 914.0 +/- 74.0 correspondingly, and one day after the operation--400 ml each. Operational blood losses were 1.25 +/- 0.9 l. It was found out that polyoxidin and mafusol have executed positive influence upon various factors of pathophysiological mechanisms, and thus were effective in complex treatment of blood losses or shock states.

Mafusol is a crystalloid solution, containing sodium fumarat and possessing antihypoxic bioenergetic ability. It was used for the correction of acute hypovolemia in infusion-transfusion therapy. Mafusol in a dose of 800-1600 ml reliably prevents the development of metabolic acidosis. It can be the preparation of choice in acute loss of blood and traumatic shock treatment in early stages of medical care.