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Background and Aims The existence of sclerophyllous plants has been considered an adaptive strategy against different environmental stresses. Given that it literally means ‘hard-leaved’, it is essential to quantify the leaf mechanical properties to understand sclerophylly. However, the relative importance of each leaf trait for mechanical properties is not yet well established. Methods Genus Quercus is an excellent system to shed light on this because it minimizes phylogenetic variation while having a wide variation in sclerophylly. We measured leaf anatomical traits and cell wall composition, analysing their relationship with leaf mass per area and leaf mechanical properties in a set of 25 oak species. Key Results The upper epidermis outer wall makes a strong and direct contribution to the leaf mechanical strength. Moreover, cellulose plays a crucial role in increasing leaf strength and toughness. The principal component analysis plot based on leaf trait values clearly separates Quercus species into two groups corresponding to evergreen and deciduous species. Conclusions Sclerophyllous Quercus species are tougher and stronger owing to their thicker epidermis outer wall and/or higher cellulose concentration. Furthermore, section Ilex species share common traits, although they occupy different climates. In addition, evergreen species living in mediterranean-type climates share common leaf traits irrespective of their different phylogenetic origin.

Background and Aims Understanding the genetic basis of adaptation and plasticity in trees constitutes a knowledge gap. We linked dendrochronology and genomics [single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)] for a widespread conifer (Pinus halepensis Mill.) to characterize intraspecific growth differences elicited by climate. Methods The analysis comprised 20-year tree-ring series of 130 trees structured in 23 populations evaluated in a common garden. We tested for genotype by environment interactions (G × E) of indexed ring width (RWI) and early- to latewood ratios (ELI) using factorial regression, which describes G × E as differential gene sensitivity to climate. Key Results The species’ annual growth was positively influenced by winter temperature and spring moisture and negatively influenced by previous autumn precipitation and warm springs. Four and five climate factors explained 10 % (RWI) and 16 % (ELI) of population-specific interannual variability, respectively, with populations from drought-prone areas and with uneven precipitation experiencing larger growth reductions during dry vegetative periods. Furthermore, four and two SNPs explained 14 % (RWI) and 10 % (ELI) of interannual variability among trees, respectively. Two SNPs played a putative role in adaptation to climate: one identified from transcriptome sequencing of P. halepensis and another involved in response regulation to environmental stressors. Conclusions We highlight how tree-ring phenotypes, obtained from a common garden experiment, combined with a candidate-gene approach allow the quantification of genetic and environmental effects determining adaptation for a conifer with a large and complex genome.

International audience; Wildfire is a common phenomenon in Mediterranean countries but the 2022 fire season has been extreme in southwest Europe (Portugal, Spain and France). Here we provide a preliminary but comprehensive analysis of 2022's wildfire sea-son in southwest Europe. Burned area has exceeded the 2001-2021 median by a factor of 52 in some regions and large wildfires (>500 ha) started to occur in June-July, earlier than the traditional fire season. These anomalies were asso-ciated with record-breaking values of fuel dryness, atmospheric water demand and pyrometeorological conditions. Live fuel moisture content was below the historical minima for almost 50 % of the season in some regions. A few large wildfires were responsible for 82 % of the burned area and, in turn, 47 % of the area burned occurred in protected areas. Shrublands, transitional woodlands and conifer forests (but not eucalypt plantations) were the land cover types most affected by extreme fires. As climate change intensifies, we can expect such fire seasons to become the new nor-mal in large parts of the continent, potentially leading to major negative impacts on rural economies. These results highlight the need for landscape level fuel management also in protected areas, to avoid fire-induced biodiversity losses and landscape scale degradation. Our results have important policy implications and indicate that fire preven-tion should be explicitly addressed within continental forest legislation and strategies.

Drought-induced tree mortality may increase with ongoing climate change. Unraveling the links between stem hydraulics and mortality thresholds, and the effects of intraspecific variation, remain important unresolved issues. We conducted a water manipulation experiment in a rain-out shelter, using four provenances of Schima superba originating from a gradient of annual precipitation (1124-1796 mm) and temperature (16.4-22.4°C). Seedlings were droughted to three levels of percentage loss of hydraulic conductivity (i.e., P

Background Lightning is the most common origin of natural fires, being strongly linked to specific synoptic conditions associated with atmospheric instability, such as dry thunderstorms; dry fuels are required for ignition to take place and for subsequent propagation. Aims The aim was to predict the daily probability of ignition by exploiting a large dataset of lightning and fire data to anticipate ignition over the entire Iberian Peninsula. Methods We trained and tested a machine learning model using lightning strikes (>17 million) in the period 2009–2015. For each lightning strike, we extracted information relating to fuel condition, structural features of vegetation, topography, and the specific characteristics of the strikes (polarity, intensity and flash density). Key results Naturally triggered ignitions are typically initiated at higher elevations (above 1000 m above sea level) under conditions of low dead fuel moisture ( 300). Negative-polarity lightning strikes (−10 kA) appear to trigger fires more frequently. Conclusions and implications Our approach was able to provide ignition forecasts at multiple temporal and spatial scales, thus enhancing forest fire risk assessment systems.

Record-breaking fire seasons in many regions across the globe raise important questions about plant community responses to shifting fire regimes (i.e., changing fire frequency, severity, and seasonality). Here, we examine the impacts of climate-driven shifts in fire regimes on vegetation communities, and likely responses to fire coinciding with severe drought, heatwaves and/or insect outbreaks. We present scenario-based conceptual models on how overlapping disturbance events and shifting fire regimes interact differently to limit post-fire resprouting and recruitment capacity. We demonstrate that, although many communities will remain resilient to changing fire regimes in the short-term, longer-term changes to vegetation structure, demography and species composition are likely, with a range of subsequent effects on ecosystem function. Resprouting species are likely to be most resilient to changing fire regimes. However, even these species are susceptible if exposed to repeated short-interval fire in combination with other stressors. Post-fire recruitment is highly vulnerable to increased fire frequency, particularly as climatic limitations on propagule availability intensify. Prediction of community responses to fire under climate change will be greatly improved by addressing knowledge gaps on how overlapping disturbances and climate change-induced shifts in fire regime affect post-fire resprouting, recruitment, growth rates, and species-level adaptation capacity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Finding the adequate balance between wood formation and abiotic stress resistance is still an important challenge for industrial woody crops. In this study, PeNAC122, a member of the NAC transcription factor (TF) family highly expressed in xylem, was cloned from Populus euphratica. Tissue expression and β-glucuronidase (GUS) staining showed that PeNAC122 was exclusively expressed in phloem fiber and secondary xylem of stems. Subcellular and yeast transactivation assays confirmed that PeNAC122 protein existed in the nucleus and did not have transcriptional activation and inhibitory activity. Overexpression of PeNAC122 poplar lines exhibited reduced plant height, thickened xylem, and accumulated lignin content in stems, and also upregulates the expression of secondary cell wall biosynthetic genes. Moreover, overexpression of PeNAC122 lines displayed more tolerance to PEG6000-induced osmotic stress, with stronger photosynthetic performance, higher antioxidant enzyme activity, and less accumulation of reactive oxygen species in leaves, and higher expression levels of stress response genes DREB2A, RD29, and NCED3. These results indicate that PeNAC122 plays a crucial role in wood formation and abiotic stress tolerance, which, in addition to potential use in improving wood quality, provides further insight into the role of NAC family TFs in balancing wood development and abiotic stress resistance.

Populus canker is a widespread disease that seriously threatens the survival of trees. Phytohormones are considered as effective chemical molecules improving plant resistance to various diseases. Ethylene is an important phytohormone that is extensively involved in the regulation of plant growth, development, and stress responses, but how ethylene and ethylene signaling regulates defense responses in woody plants is still unclear. Here, we showed that ethylene positively regulates the responses of poplar to canker caused by the hemibiotrophic fungus Dothiorella gregaria. Treatment of Populus tomentosa with 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC, the biosynthetic precursor of ethylene) significantly enhanced disease resistance, accompanied by the induction of pathogen-related protein (PR) gene expression and H

Wildfires are a natural disturbance in many parts of the world, but fire regimes are changing as a result of anthropogenic pressures. A key uncertainty towards anticipating future changes in burned area lies in understanding the effects of climate teleconnections (CTs). Here we test how different CTs impact burned area in China, a large country comprising different biomes and where similar fire-suppression and post-fire afforestation policies are implemented. We observed diverging temporal trends in burned area across the different pyroregions of China, from increases in the Northeastern grasslands and mixed forests pyroregion to decreases in the Southern tropical forests pyroregion. This North-South antiphase in fire activity was being partly driven by joint effects of the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Antarctic Oscillation, which exerted contrasting effects on fire weather across latitude. El Niño Southern Oscillation and the other examined teleconnections had minor effects over burned area. The increasing burned area in the NE-mixed forests pyroregion indicates that mega-fires may increase under global warming but their occurrence may be modulated by potential strengthening or weakening of NAO and AAO.

Nighttime stomatal conductance (gsn ) varies among plant functional types and species, but factors shaping the evolution of gsn remain unclear. Examinations of intraspecific variation in gsn as a function of climate and co-varying leaf traits may provide new insight into the evolution of gsn and its adaptive significance. We grew 11 genotypes of Panicum virgatum (switchgrass) representing differing home-climates in a common garden experiment and measured nighttime and daytime leaf gas exchange, as well as stomatal density (SD) and size during early-, mid-, and late-summer. We used piecewise structural equation modelling to determine direct and indirect relationships between home-climate, gas exchange, and stomatal traits. We found no direct relationship between home-climate and gsn . However, genotypes from hotter climates possessed higher SD, which resulted in higher gsn . Across genotypes, higher gsn was associated with higher daytime stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis. Our results indicate that higher gsn may arise in genotypes from hotter climates via increased SD. High SD may provide benefits to genotypes from hotter climates through enhanced daytime transpirational cooling or by permitting maximal gas exchange when conditions are suitable. These results highlight the role of climate and trait coordination in shaping genetic differentiation in gsn .

Circadian rhythms affect many aspects of a plant's metabolism including, but not limited to, photosynthesis. Here, we provide a complete protocol for determining changes in the composition of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll and carotenoids), and we also consider its implementation within circadian experiments. We describe how to design a circadian experiment with the goal of assessing changes in pigment composition. We then perform two consecutive approaches to track changes in pigment composition: indirect noninvasive estimation of pigment composition (by reflectance or fluorescence) followed by direct pigment analysis (by chromatography or spectrophotometry). Finally, we present several considerations regarding data analyses.

The slow decomposition rate of the reluctant structure of lignocellulose in agricultural waste is the great limitation of composting processes, which can be averted by pretreatment-strategies. This study focused on the impacts of pretreating rice straw using a consortium of newly isolated fungal species on lignocellulose degradation and humic substances during composting. Fungal pretreatment had a significant impact on lignocellulose degradation (84%) of rice straw by producing higher lignocellulytic enzymes than chemical pretreatments (79%) or the control (61%). The compost with fungal pretreated rice straw (FPT) showed significantly high composting temperature in the late mesophilic stage, which enhanced the degradation of lignocellulose. The fluorescence excitation emission spectroscopy revealed that significantly more humic acid-like compounds were formed in FPT. These findings suggest that fungal pretreatment is a feasible method to accelerate straw degradation and humification.

Dendrometers are being increasingly used to measure stem radius changes in trees and to unravel the mechanisms underlying stem daily rhythms of radial expansion and contraction. Nevertheless, automated dendrometers have not been often used to measure root radius dynamics, their relationship with environmental variables and the influence of endogenous processes, especially in drought-prone Mediterranean areas. Here, we measured root radius dynamics of two coexisting oak species (the evergreen Quercus ilex L. and the deciduous Quercus faginea Lam). Our goals were to describe annual, seasonal and diurnal scale root radius patterns and to disentangle the role of different environmental parameters as drivers. Long-term high-resolution measurements (every 15 min over 7 years) were collected with automated point dendrometers on the main tree roots of five individuals per species. Root radius annual change patterns were bimodal and similar for both oak species. Quercus faginea Lam showed three times larger root increment in the spring than Q. ilex, but the bimodal pattern was stronger in Q. ilex, which showed a larger root increment in autumn. Quercus faginea Lam showed an earlier root phenological activation in the spring and in late summer compared with Q. ilex. The effects of environmental drivers across species were similar at daily scales: root radius increased with air temperature and soil moisture, and it decreased with rising vapor pressure deficit. Furthermore, daily root radius variations for both oak species were maintained after extracting statistically the environmental effects, which points toward a significant role of endogenous drivers. These differences in root radius change patterns at seasonal to daily scales likely result from the differences in leaf phenology and growth strategy. Quercus faginea Lam is deciduous and has a faster growing rate in spring than the evergreen Q. ilex, which can grow more in summer.

Increasing land demands for food production has led to large-scale soil degradation in the hilly regions of south-eastern Bangladesh. An intensification of slash-and-burn techniques, where fallow intervals have shortened considerably in recent years, has led to widespread losses in soil quality. Here we sought to test to what extent do current agroforestry practices in the area, compared with current reforestation efforts, can ameliorate different physicochemical soil properties after the abandonment of slash-and-burn practices. We observed that concentrations of soil organic matter (4.75%), available phosphorous (12.17 μg g−1) and exchangeable potassium (0.39 mg kg−1) in agroforestry plots were significantly higher than in reforestation (3.18%, 6.50 μg g−1 and 0.21 mg kg−1, respectively) or slash-and-burn plots (1.83%, 5.90 μg g−1 and 0.03 mg kg−1, respectively). While reforestation and agroforestry may both serve to restore soil functions but we observed higher benefits in the latter system. Thus, agroforestry systems may be a suitable land management system for replacing ancestral slash and burn techniques but care should be taken to diminish soil compaction.

Animals, such as termites, have largely been overlooked as global-scale drivers of biogeochemical cycles1,2, despite site-specific findings3,4. Deadwood turnover, an important component of the carbon cycle, is driven by multiple decay agents. Studies have focused on temperate systems5,6, where microbes dominate decay7. Microbial decay is sensitive to temperature, typically doubling per 10°C increase (decay effective Q10 = ~2)8–10. Termites are important decayers in tropical systems3,11–13 and differ from microbes in their population dynamics, dispersal, and substrate discovery14–16, meaning their climate sensitivities also differ. Using a network of 133 sites spanning 6 continents, we report the first global field-based quantification of temperature and precipitation sensitivities for termites and microbes, providing novel understandings of their response to changing climates. Temperature sensitivity of microbial decay was within previous estimates. Termite discovery and consumption were both much more sensitive to temperature (decay effective Q10 = 6.53), leading to striking differences in deadwood turnover in areas with and without termites. Termite impacts were greatest in tropical seasonal forests and savannas and subtropical deserts. With tropicalization17 (i.e., warming shifts to a tropical climate), the termite contribution to global wood decay will increase as more of the earth’s surface becomes accessible to termites. Acknowledgements. For materials, field, and lab assistance, we thank the Australian Landscape Trust Team, Juan Martínez de Aragón, Eric Roy, Hugh Wilson, Kylie Brice, Bethanie Coleman, Brendan Delroy, Coline Deveautour, Suzanne Donn, Generci Assis Neves, Ricardo Marques Barreiros, Ricardo Marques Barreiros, Generci Assis Neves from Resineves Agroflorestal company, Alfred Lochner, Pousada Vale do Céu, Humberto Robles, María M. Rivera, and Grant Kirker. Steve Allison and Tom Crowther provided comments on the manuscript and Abbey Yatsko helped with figure and manuscript formatting. Funding for this work was provided by US National Science Foundation (DEB-1655759, 2149151, 1713502, 1713435, 1647502, 1546686, 1831952), George Washington University, USDA Forest Service, Centre College Faculty Development Funds, Australia Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network (TERN) National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS), Royal Society-FCDO Africa Capacity Building Initiative, New Phytologist Foundation, Fondecyt grant:1160329, Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, Brasil (CAPES), Department of Ecology and Conservation of the Federal University of Lavras, CNPq, FAPEMIG, Australian Academy of Science 2017 Thomas Davies Research Grant, Australian Research Council (DP160103765), UK National Environment Research Council (NE/L000016/1), Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo, Brazil (NERC - FAPESP)19/07773-1, Environment Research and Technology Development Fund (ERTDF; JPMEERF15S11420) of the Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency (ERCA) of Japan, COLCIENCIAS (No. FP44842-046-2017), Spanish Government (grant PID2019-110521GB-I00), Catalan Government (grant SGR 2017-1005), Fundación Ramón Areces (grant ELEMENTAL-CLIMATE), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica (ANPCyT) PICT 2019- 2472, National Agency for the Promotion of Research, Technological Development and Innovation, Scientific and Technological Research Project 2018-01561 (PICT 2018- 01561), iDiv German Research Foundation (DFG– FZT 118, 202548816), European Research Council (ERC), European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement no. 677232).

Live Fuel Moisture Content (LFMC) is one of the main factors affecting forest ignitability as it determines the availability of existing live fuel to burn. Currently, LFMC is monitored through spectral vegetation indices or inferred from meteorological drought indices. While useful, neither approach provides mechanistic insights into species-specific LFMC variation and they are limited in the ability to forecast LFMC under altered future climates. Here, we developed a semi-mechanistic model to predict daily variation in LFMC across woody species from different functional types by adjusting a soil water balance model which estimates predawn leaf water potential (Ψpd). Our overarching goal was to balance the trade-off between biological realism, which enhances model applicability, and parameterization complexity, which may limit its value within operational settings. After calibration, model predictions were validated against a dataset comprising 1659 LFMC observations across peninsular Spain, belonging to different functional types and from contrasting climates. The overall goodness of fit for our model (R2 = 0.5) was better than that obtained by an existing models based on drought indices (R2 = 0.3) or spectral vegetation indices (R2 = 0.1). We observed the best predictive performance for seeding shrubs (R2 = 0.6) followed by trees (R2 = 0.5) and resprouting shrubs (R2 = 0.4). Through its relatively simple parameterization, the approach developed here may pave the way for a new generation of process-based models that can be used for operational purposes within fire risk mitigation scenarios. This work was partly founded by the Spanish Government, grant number RTI2018-094691-B-C31 (MCIU/AEI/FEDER, EU) . R.B-R. ac-knowledges the Community of Madrid for the predoctoral contract PEJD-2019-PRE/AMB-15,644 funded by the Youth Employment Initia-tive (YEI) . M. De C. was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation via competitive grant CGL2017-89149-C2-2-R. UNED founding for open access publishing.

The existence of sclerophyllous plants has been considered an adaptive strategy against different environmental stresses. As it literally means “hard-leaved”, it is essential to quantify the leaf mechanical properties to understand sclerophylly. However, the relative importance of each leaf trait on mechanical properties is not yet well established. The genusQuercusis an excellent system to shed light on this since it minimizes phylogenetic variation while having a wide variation in sclerophylly. Thus, leaf anatomical traits and cell wall composition were measured, analyzing their relationship with LMA and leaf mechanical properties in a set of 25 oak species. Outer wall contributed strongly to leaf mechanical strength. Moreover, cellulose plays a critical role in increasing leaf strength and toughness. The PCA plot based on leaf trait values clearly separatedQuercusspecies into two groups corresponding to evergreen and deciduous species. SclerophyllousQuercusspecies are tougher and stronger due to their thicker epidermis outer wall and/or higher cellulose concentration. Furthermore, sectionIlexspecies share common traits regardless of they occupy quite different climates. In addition, evergreen species living in Mediterranean-type climates share common leaf traits irrespective of their different phylogenetic origin.

Vapour pressure deficit is a major driver of seasonal changes in transpiration, but photoperiod also modulates leaf responses. Climate warming might enhance transpiration by increasing atmospheric water demand and the length of the growing season, but photoperiod-sensitive species could show dampened responses. Here, we document that day length is a significant driver of the seasonal variation in stomatal conductance. We performed weekly gas exchange measurements across a common garden experiment with 12 oak species from contrasting geographical origins, and we observed that the influence of day length was of similar strength to that of vapour pressure deficit in driving the seasonal pattern. We then examined the generality of our findings by incorporating day-length regulation into well-known stomatal models. For both angiosperm and gymnosperm species, the models improved significantly when adding day-length dependences. Photoperiod control over stomatal conductance could play a large yet underexplored role on the plant and ecosystem water balances.

Soil salinity is a widespread stress in semi-arid forests worldwide, but how to manage nitrogen (N) nutrition to improve plant saline tolerance remains unclear. Here, the cuttings of a widely distributed poplar from central Asia, Populus russikki Jabl., were exposed to either normal or low nitrogen (LN) concentrations for two weeks in semi-controlled greenhouse, and then they were added with moderate salt solution or not for another two weeks to evaluate their physiological, biochemical, metabolites and transcriptomic profile changes. LN-pretreating alleviated the toxicity caused by the subsequent salt stress in the poplar plants, demonstrated by a significant reduction in the influx of Na+ and Cl- and improvement of the K+/Na+ ratio. The other salt-stressed traits were also ameliarated, indicated by the variations of chlorophyll content, PSII photochemical activity and lipid peroxidation. Stress alleviation resulted from two different processes. First, LN pretreatment caused a significant increase of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC), allowed for an increased production of osmolytes and a higher potential fueling ion transport under subsequent salt condition, along with increased transcript levels of the cation/H+ ATPase. Second, LN pretreatment enhanced the transcript levels of stress signaling components and phytohormones pathway as well as antioxidant enzyme activities. The results indicate that early restrictions of N supply could enhance posterior survival under saline stress in poplar plants, which is important for plantation programs and restoration activities in semi-arid areas. This research was supported by Natural Science Foundation of China ( 31770644 and 31270660 ), Project of Innovation research team in Sichuan Education Administration in China (No. 13TD0023 ).

Nocturnal water losses were for long considered negligible, but it is now known that incomplete stomatal closure during the night leads to significant water losses at leaf, plant and ecosystem scales. However, only daytime transpiration is currently accounted for in evapotranspiration studies. Important uncertainties on the drivers of nocturnal water fluxes hinder its incorporation within modelling frameworks because some studies indicate that night-time stomatal drivers may differ from day-time responses. Here, we synthesise the studies on nocturnal stomatal conductance (g

International audience; Predicting plant growth from functional traits has been a long-term goal of experimental botany. Early studies considered that resource traits align across a single axis, from high to low growth rates. The drivers of nocturnal and cuticular leaf conductances have received much recent attention, but how they align with other functional traits along axes of resource use remains to be investigated. Here we examined correlated evolution of secondary growth, leaf economic, stomatal, venation and gas exchange traits across 12 Quercus species growing in a common garden. Variation in growth correlated with variation in assimilation and nocturnal conductance (gn). Our observations are consistent with the hypothesis of a negative relationship between SLA and leaf vein density (VLAall) within oaks, indicating that increased VLAall is a strategy to enhance leaf vascular redundancy against stress or perturbation as the degree of sclerophylly increases. gn was negatively correlated with growth and decoupled from daytime conductance and photosynthesis. gn seemed to be a passive process in this genus, apparently driven by enhanced water supply that results from increased VLAall. We also observed a positive relationship between leaf vein density and cuticular conductance, indicating that increasing VLAall may incur significant water costs under strong drought.

Cadmium (Cd) is a major environmental pollutant and one of the most toxic metals in the environment. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) assisted phytoremediation can be used to remove Cd from polluted soils but the role of AMF, which mediate in Cd accumulation and tolerance, remains poorly understood. Here we inoculated Lolium perenne with two different AMF species (Glomus etunicatum and Glomus mosseae). Mycorrhizal L. perenne and non-mycorrhizal controls were exposed to Cd stress and we tested the effects of AMF mycorrhization on Cd uptake and subsequent tolerance, as well as the underlying mechanisms. Mycorrhizal infection increased root Cd2+ uptake and we observed that net Cd2+ influx was coupled with net Ca2+ influx. The inactivation of Ca2+ transporter channels decreased Cd2+ uptake in non-inoculated roots to a greater extent than in inoculated roots, indicating that AMF activates additional ion transport channels. In consequence, inoculated plants exhibited higher Cd accumulation in both roots and shoots than non-inoculated controls. However, AMF-inoculated plants showed higher chlorophyll concentrations, photosynthesis, and growth under Cd, indicating lower Cd toxicity in AMF-inoculated plants, despite the increase in Cd uptake. We observed that AMF-inoculated favored the isolation of Cd within cell walls and vacuoles, and had higher concentrations of superoxide dismutase activity and glutathione concentration in roots than non-inoculated plants, consequently experiencing less stress upon Cd exposure. Our results highlight the potential and mechanism of AMF for enhancing phytoremediation of L. perenne in heavy metal contaminated environments.

Nocturnal stomatal conductance contributes to water loss at night without carbon gain in C3 or C4 plants because photosynthesis does not occur in the dark. The functional relevance of nocturnal conductance thus remains an unresolved conundrum. Here, we review and re-analyse previously published datasets on nocturnal conductance (gn ) globally (176 species) to synthesize our current understanding on its potential biological function and to identify remaining research gaps. We found that gn was positively correlated with relative growth rate, which is compatible with the postulate that circadian-driven nocturnal conductance enhances predawn stomatal conductance, thereby priming stomata for photosynthesis in early daylight. The variation in gn across plant species and functional types was not consistent with the hypotheses that the main function of gn is to: remove excess CO2, which might limit growth; enhance oxygen delivery to the functional sapwood; enhance nutrient supply; or that gn is due to stomatal leakiness. We suggest further study regarding the potential of gn to be an important functional and ecological trait influencing competitive outcomes and we outline a research programme to achieve that objective.