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Recent literature demonstrates the contribution of short food supply chains (SFSC) to regional economies and sustainable food systems, and acknowledges their role as drivers for sustainable development. Moreover, different types of SFSC have been supported by urban food policies (UFP) over the few last years and actors from the food chain became part of new institutional settings for urban food policies. However, evidence from the sustainability impact assessment (SIA) of these SFSC in urban contexts is limited. Our paper presents an approach for the development of an SIA framework for different SFSC types. In addition, a practical application of the tool in four metropolitan regions (Berlin, London, Ljubljana and Nairobi) is tested. The conceptual development of the SIA framework is based on an in-depth analysis of existing SIA frameworks and methods for assessing the sustainability of agriculture, food chains and food systems and adapted to the specific needs of analysing SFSC in metropolitan regions. The operational value and utility of the framework and the tool were tested with social and natural scientists and local stakeholders. The assessment results demonstrate that SFSC seems to be more sustainable than the baseline (long global food chains) in the social dimension, but also feature specific strengths and weaknesses concerning their economic and environmental sustainability. This might give an indication for regional adjusted strategies and food chain innovations that improve the sustainability performance may be required. We found the tool useful for framing the dialogue between food chain actors, consumers and policy, because it makes benefits and trade-offs of the chain types operating in an urban-rural context more visible and communicable.The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10460-021-10288-w.

Bristol, one of the United Kingdom’s (UK) nine Core Cities, is seeking to achieve Zero Waste City status by 2049. This study combines macro-economic valuation with transition pathway mapping and adapted participatory scenario planning to stress test the city’s ambitious food waste targets. The primary aim is to enable better understanding of who might be affected by achieving these targets, both locally and nationally, the potential scale of impacts, and therefore the potential barriers and policy opportunities. The valuation focuses on household and commercial food waste, combining available site and city data with national level proxies. Impact areas include changes in sectoral income, employee income, capital owner income, tax revenue, and carbon emissions. Four scenarios, based on two extreme cases, are modelled to consider food waste reduction and potential shifts in consumption patterns. Results indicate that current market and governance failures incentivise waste, and suggest potential routes to transition, including trade-offs and resource reallocation, alongside the need to acknowledge and respond to these profound structural barriers. With further development and testing, the approach may contribute to a better understanding of how to achieve city socioenvironmental targets.

For environmental conservation, peat-based growing media are being phased-out in many countries. Peat-free alternatives need to be developed, preferably from local biomass ingredients. This paper describes the performance of peat-free substrates containing olive branch pruning materials in comparison with commercial growing media controls for olive saplings grown during April-October 2020 at the Olive Research Institute (ORI) in Turkey. The trial was conducted using a randomized plot design with 4 replications and 4 treatments: 1) (COMP) compost made of locally available plant materials with 70% olive prunings (100%, v v-1; 2) (FIBER) mixture of chipped and extruded olive prunings (50% chipped + 50% extruded, v v-1); 3) (SAND) a commercial mixture(sand 90% + vermiculite 10%, v v-1) (control); and 4) (PEAT+) a commercial mixture (peat 40% + coco coir 40% + perlite20%, v v-1) (control). The vegetative growth parameters and weed status (density and coverage) were recorded and root fungal diseases commonly found in Turkey were analyzed. After the first six months of growth, there were statistically significant differences between the treatments (p≤0.05); COMP and PEAT+ were comparable and produced the largest plants with 100% survival rate. 98% of plants survived in SAND, and 81% in FIBER.FIBER, which was the only treatment with no weed growth, had about 30% reduced growth as compared to SAND, which had 90 and 78% growth compared with PEAT+ and COMP. Still, it was remarkable that it was possible to grow olive saplings in treated olive prunings. It is very promising that a peat-free growing media like COMP performed as well as the commercial growing media with 40% peat. During the extrusion of olive material, the temperature rose to ca. 120°C and during composting the COMP reached 65-70°C; temperatures at which the materials are expected to be effectively sanatised from any fungal diseases.

This paper explores how dairy farmers attempt to navigate prescribed principles and fixed practices of environmental care in the context of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZ) and the EU Water Framework Directive. In contrast to agri-environmental schemes, farm-level compliance with NVZ regulations often involves substantial investment costs for the farmer. Drawing on a case study of Wales, we consider why controversial practices of nitrate management exist on farms and how, through a combined narrative of vulnerability and care, certain practices are legitimised. Such narratives seemingly involve an attempt to redefine ‘good farmer’ identities within conventional agriculture, whereby the act and declared commitment to administering ‘good care’ becomes separated from a responsibility for the outcomes of some farming practices. In exploring why such a limited framing of the good farmer and good care are being pursued, we look at the role of environmental regulation (specifically NVZ regulation) in shaping this response. We conclude that a distancing of responsibility for the outcomes of poor care does not, necessarily, equate with an actual absence of caring about, or a failure to care for the local environment. Moreover, rather than symbolising a logic of being resistant to change, for many farmers it represents a perceived inability to change. Such is the growing disconnect between conventional systems of farming practice and the environmental state of many traditional family farms that, rather than being at ‘cross-roads’, these farmers have instead seemingly reached a ‘dead end’. Our analysis is supported by three data sets (compiled between 2016 and 2018): responses to a questionnaire sent to 1000 farmers in Wales; semi-structured interviews with industry stakeholders (combined with farm site visits in the case of farmer respondents); and, analysis of responses (n = 258) to a Welsh Government-led national public consultation on the proposed expansion of the regulation of NVZs in Wales.

Although the organic production concept is characterised by an efficient and environmentally sound production that is based on a few off-farm inputs as well as recycling organically grown products. Organic products are often perceived as safer and more promotive to consumers' health as compared to products from conventional or integrated production systems. However, from a hygienic point of view, animal husbandry and plant crop production can share a larger contact interface in organic farming than in conventional or integrated production systems due to a higher usage of animal waste products and composts which are mainly used for soil health and fertility purposes. Furthermore, animals may also play an integral part in crop rotation/management (i.e., pasture) in organic horticulture. However, there are also organic systems which exclude any livestock inputs (vegan organic). This paper assesses the organic production of fruits and vegetables in light of the “one health”-concept. The “one health”-concept encompasses human medicine, veterinary medicine and husbandry science with zoonoses as the linking element. However, this concept does not consider plant foods as a potential health hazard. In light of the “one health”-concept, the organic production of fruits and vegetables, in particular for products that are consumed raw or after minimal processing, is a hotspot for the transmission of fecal pathogens and completes the pathogens' transmission cycle between animals and humans and/or humans and humans. This review focuses on four critical routes of transmission (i) soil and soil fertility management, ii) irrigation water, iii) presence of livestock and wildlife, iv) humans) and discusses the measures (risk assessment, hurdle concept, guidelines and risk based inspection regimes) to be taken for the organic (and conventional with livestock inputs) production of safe fruits and vegetables. We concluded that a mixture of measures is available to manage risks within the “one health”-concept and this includes a choice for consumers to source more vegan organic products that are produced without any animal inputs.

The debate on urban resilience and metabolism has directed increasing attention to the ecological footprint of food consumption, self-sufficiency as a means of food security, and regionalisation of food systems for shortening supply chains. Recently, metropolitan regions have proposed food policies that aim to foster local food systems connected to their cities. Our research thus focused on the relationship between urban food demand and metropolitan land use. We have developed the Metropolitan Foodshed and Self-sufficiency Scenario (MFSS) model, which combines regional food consumption and agricultural production parameters in a data-driven approach to assess the spatial extent of foodsheds as well as the theoretical self-sufficiency of the communities they serve. The model differentiates between food groups, food production systems, levels of food loss and waste as well as food origin. With regard to future urban growth, we applied the model to current and future population projections. Results show substantial variations in the spatial extent of metropolitan foodsheds and self-sufficiency levels between the case study regions London, Berlin, Milan and Rotterdam, depending on population density and distribution, geographical factors and proximity to neighbouring urban agglomerations. The application of the model as a food planning tool offers a new perspective on the potential role of metropolitan regions for strengthening urban self-sufficiency. It also enables the ex-ante assessment of spatial consequences of changes within metropolitan food systems, on both demand and supply sides. In particular, we discuss possible dietary and consumption changes, but also production and supply chain alternatives.

Numerous tree planting initiatives have been launched worldwide, based on the idea that carbon capture by trees can help to limit global warming. A recent study estimated the additional tree canopy cover that could be established given the growing conditions in every square kilometre of land on earth that is not already forested, urbanised, or used for crop production. It reported a total &ldquo, tree restoration potential&rdquo, of &gt, 900 million ha worldwide and identified hotspots where opportunities for tree planting initiatives may be the greatest. With the potential for an estimated 4.2 million ha of additional canopy cover, one such hotspot is Great Britain. We quantify the extent of habitats, land uses, and protected areas that would be impacted by tree planting on this scale in Great Britain and discuss the potential social&ndash, ecological trade-offs involved. Our findings show that realising the &ldquo, would mean a considerable upheaval for the British landscape with 30&ndash, 50% of ecologically valuable habitats lost and a reduction of 44% in the area of improved grassland. Up to 21% of land protected by law for its ecological, scientific, scenic, or cultural value would be impacted. Importantly, we demonstrate that an alternative approach based on increasing tree canopy cover by up to 20% in urban areas and on cropland could make a substantial contribution to tree planting targets, potentially offsetting losses elsewhere. Such shifts in the structure and function of the British landscape will depend on deep changes in the food system, evidence-based decisions about which existing habitats to protect, and a long-term commitment to tree planting and maintenance.

Across Europe, there has been an ongoing discussion regarding inputs into organic agriculture and horticulture, which are considered more or less contentious. These discussions have contributed to the decision by the European Horizon-2020 research programme to invest 8 million Euros into two 4-year projects, starting in 2018. This paper provides research approaches from one of those successful projects from the call: Organic-PLUS. The focus is on research relevant to organic horticulture (and non-organic horticulture). This includes alternatives to the use of copper and mineral oils used for plant protection, with a special focus on potatoes, perennial Mediterranean crops like olives and citrus and greenhouse crops like tomatoes and aubergines. Further research is on better organic fertilisers such as non-animal derived fertilisers, which are compatible with 'Vegan Organic Standards', but also other 'bio-economy fertilisers', which make use of existing resources, like fishpond sediments and marine-derived fertilisers. Alternatives to peat as a growing media, an area where peat replacement is most challenging, i.e., in specialised nursery crops will also be researched and discussed. The increasing use of plastic mulch materials and potential impact of plastic and alternative mulch materials on soil pollutants will be evaluated. We will use the phase-out of peat as an example to discuss voluntary, industry-lead approaches compared to legislative ones, and discuss how this relates to the revised EU organic regulation adopted in June 2018.

Urban gardening is not a new phenomenon but it has received considerably more practical and academic interest in recent years. Studies on economic aspects such as crop yields, inputs and outputs of production, productivity, gross margins and the contribution to home economics are rare, especially in Europe. While urban gardening plays an important role in the Global South, its role in Western Europe for food productivity and home economics is currently under-researched. The aim of this study is to analyse European urban gardeners’ economic performance and self-sufficiency on a household level, as well as to reach a better understanding of their contribution to food self-provision and food security in the metropolitan areas. In a study carried out in 2014 with on-site personal and with online questionnaires participated 180 urban gardeners from three case study cities (Ljubljana, Milan, and London). Results from the economic analysis showed that although for most urban gardeners, profit is not their main motivation, the economic calculation shows that productivity in small urban plots can be comparable to market garden production. Urban gardeners are saving money, especially when, compared to retail prices for regular produce or organic produce, their input is included in the gross margin calculation. We conclude that, in the case-study cities, the self-provisional potential of urban gardeners’ households to adequately cover the annual vegetable need of five-a-day servings can be met under three conditions: (1) sufficient garden size; (2) increased area productivity, and (3) sufficient labour-hour inputs.

Circular Economy (CE) and nexus thinking are increasingly considered as promising solutions for resource sustainability. While CE aims to design out waste through reducing, reusing, recycling and recovery of materials, the Nexus approach is interested to minimise waste and inefficiencies by focusing on the interlinkages between resources. Both concepts have been evolving separately with limited academic work to analyse their relationship. The aim of this systematic review, based on academic publications from 2004 to 2020, is to scrutinise the relationship between the circular economy and the nexus approach by adopting a mixed methods research design including bibliometric analysis and thematic synthesis. Our quantitative bibliometric analysis shows that, out of 7956 circular economy and 5795 nexus papers, academic documents explicitly mentioning both concepts account for less than 1% of each literature. Nonetheless, there is considerable overlap in most frequent words (50%–71%) as well as the most relevant sources (54%–56%) between both literatures. A detailed qualitative analysis of the documents relevant to both concepts also supports the existence of a close relationship between the two. From these analyses, we develop a new integrative conceptualization of the relationship between circular economy and the nexus approach. We conclude that there is good evidence for a three-tiered hierarchical relationship: ‘intersection’, ‘interrelation’ and ‘interdependence’, which we discuss in detail. Finally, emphasising the importance of an integrated approach, we propose a novel conceptual framework which combines circular economy and nexus approaches, which helps to operationalise nexus thinking on the one hand, and to converge the circular economy towards environmental sustainability on the other hand. As such, the framework addresses two known challenges of the concepts. However, whilst our integrated framework contributes to the conceptual development of both circular economy and the nexus approach, further research is required to highlight and facilitate their interrelation and interdependence in practice.

Greater London has a vibrant food scene comprising of many different types of urban and peri-urban ‘short food supply chains’ (SFSCs). This paper reports on exploratory research, which used examples of SFSCs from London to build a more detailed understanding of different types of urban SFSC and their relative performance compared to each other. To do this, we undertook a participatory sustainability impact assessment (SIA) in which local food system stakeholders were asked to rank the perceived impacts of five different urban and peri-urban SFSCs compared with the current ‘mainstream’ food supply system (defined as supermarkets retailing mass-produced, standardized food products). The SFSCs ranked were: (1) urban gardening (self-supply), (2) urban gardening (commercial), (3) community supported agriculture (CSA), (4) direct sale (on-farm) and (5) direct sale (off-farm). Results from the SIA showed that CSAs were regarded as delivering the highest overall social, economic and environmental benefits, followed by urban gardening (commercial), urban gardening (self-supply) and direct sales (off-farm). The lowest overall rating was for the supply chain direct sales (on-farm). All five SFSCs were ranked highest on the social aspects of sustainability. Following the participatory SIA of perceived sustainability, we next developed a questionnaire in order to test the feasibility of measuring the specific (rather than ‘perceived’) impacts of an urban SFSC. We applied the test at a community-led local food market in South London, where we conducted face-to-face interviews with all market stallholders (18 respondents) and a random sample of consumers (51 respondents). Results from the community-led market were similar to those acquired at the SIA workshop, with greater agreement about the social benefits of the market, compared with economic and environmental impacts. The results also suggest that producers underestimated consumers’ willingness to share the risks that the producers face and we identify this as an important aspect for future research. The paper concludes with reflections on the strengths and weaknesses of the SIA methodology.

Wastewater from domestic developments, farms and agro-industrial processing can be sources of pollution in the environment; current wastewater management methods are usually machine-based, and thus energy consuming. When Permaculture Principles are used in the creation of water purification and harvesting systems, there can be multiple environmental and economic benefits. In the context of energy descent, it may be considered desirable to treat wastewater using minimal energy. The constructed wetland design presented here is a low-entropy system in which wastewater is harvested and transformed into lush and productive wetland, eliminating the requirement for non-renewable energy in water purification, and also maximising benefits: biodiversity, flood resilience and yield. In permaculture design, the high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous compounds in sewage are viewed as valuable nutrients, resources to be harvested by a constructed wetland ecosystem and converted into useful yield. Similarly, rainwater runoff is not viewed as a problem which can cause flooding, but as a potential resource to be harvested to provide a yield. This paper presents a case study, with both water quality and productivity data, from Brookside Farm UK, where the use of Permaculture Design Principles has created a combined wastewater management and purification system, accepting all site water.

The aim of this handbook of experimental guidelines is to help conduct experiments for organic horticulture in greenhouses throughout Europe. It considers vegetables, fruit and ornamental production. Using standardised research procedures for experiments will aid a comparison of results and dissemination of knowledge. The editors have tried to incorporate as many climatic zones, countries and crops as possible in order to represent a wide area of Europe although some smaller crops or certain specific climates could not be included.

In this paper we present a multi-disciplinary analysis of the potential impacts of undertaking similar environmental actions on multiple farms in a small geographic area, using organic farming as a proxy for a co-ordinated approach. Recent papers have called for more co-ordinated efforts between farmers in terms of their environmental actions, but there has been limited applied research demonstrating the environmental benefits or the economic and social implications to farmers of this approach. Comparative analysis of biodiversity, soil and water, and farm profitability were undertaken in England on 32 matched farms in areas of low and high organic farming concentration; qualitative interviews were also conducted with 48 farmers living in two of the eight areas. Findings demonstrate higher overall levels of biodiversity on organic farms (particularly in “hotspot” areas) but this was not universal across the species groups investigated. Higher water infiltration rates were found in organic grasslands, which could prove to be a useful measure to combat flooding. In terms of the technical efficiency of producing these environmental gains, conventional and organic farms in hotspot areas demonstrated equivalent efficiency from a financial perspective. Socio-cultural research identified the different amounts of trust farmers have in their neighbours, based in part on their performance as ‘good farmers’. We discuss the neighbourhood effect with a multi-disciplinary approach and conclude that encouraging local farmer co-ordination can have clear environmental benefits without high economic cost, but must be undertaken with caution – specifically regarding the trade-offs between benefits, local geophysical and social characteristics, and assumptions made about inter-farmer trust.

Simultaneous analysis of economic and environmental performance of horticultural crop production requires qualified assumptions on the effect of management options, and particularly of nitrogen (N) fertilisation, on the net returns of the farm. Dynamic soil-plant-environment simulation models for agro-ecosystems are frequently applied to predict crop yield, generally as dry matter per area, and the environmental impact of production. Economic analysis requires conversion of yields to fresh marketable weight, which is not easy to calculate for vegetables, since different species have different properties and special market requirements. Furthermore, the marketable part of many vegetables is dependent on N availability during growth, which may lead to complete crop failure under sub-optimal N supply in tightly calculated N fertiliser regimes or low-input systems. In this paper we present two methods for converting simulated total dry matter to marketable fresh matter yield for various vegetables and European growth conditions, taking into consideration the effect of N supply: (i) a regression based function for vegetables sold as bulk or bunching ware and (ii) a population approach for piecewise sold row crops. For both methods, to be used in the context of a dynamic simulation model, parameter values were compiled from a literature survey. Implemented in such a model, both algorithms were tested against experimental field data, yielding an Index of Agreement of 0.80 for the regression strategy and 0.90 for the population strategy. Furthermore, the population strategy was capable of reflecting rather well the effect of crop spacing on yield and the effect of N supply on product grading.

BACKGROUND: Organic field-scale vegetables are among the most profitable enterprises in organic farming systems. They are also some of the most nutrient-demanding crops, and many organic arable systems with field-scale vegetables are stockless. Without livestock manure inputs, nutrient supply depends on fertility-building crops, which generate only costs and no income. Different strategies of fertility management were compared on a central England research farm. Fertility management treatments consisted of different lengths of fertility building with green waste compost additions. Outputs and inputs in terms of nutrients and economics were monitored for 31 rotations during 1996–2002. RESULTS: N, P and K rotational nutrient balances, as well as C inputs, showed a negative relationship with rotational gross margins. Variable and allocated fixed costs of fertility building were low, between 2 and 5% of variable costs (£0.5–2 ha−1 for 1 kg N ha−1 supplied to the rotation). The intensity of vegetable cropping in these rotations was moderate (25–40% vegetable crops in the rotation) and balancing of fertility management and economics was possible at this intensity without livestock manure or other permitted fertiliser additions. CONCLUSION: Completely stockless systems (in analogy may be called vegan) are possible in organic vegetable production without compromising on fertility or economics. However, for a higher vegetable-cropping intensity (up to 90%) a more sophisticated mix of short-term fertility-building and N-trapping crops will be needed and such rotations may require further external addition of green waste or livestock manure. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry

The present study aims at describing the state-of-play of short food supply chains (SFSC) in the EU understood as being the chains in which foods involved are identified by, and traceable to a farmer and for which the number of intermediaries between farmer and consumer should be minimal or ideally nil. Several types of SFSCs can be identified, for example CSAs (Community-Supported Agriculture), on-farm sales, off-farm schemes (farmers markets, delivery schemes), collective sales in particular towards public institutions, being mostly local / proximity sales and in some cases distance sales. Such type of food chain has specific social impacts, economic impacts at regional and farm level as well as environmental impacts translating themselves into a clear interest of consumers. SFSCs are present throughout the EU, although there are some differences in the different MS in terms of dominating types of SFSCs. In general, they are dominantly small or micro-enterprises, composed of small-scale producers, often coupled to organic farming practices. Social values (quality products to consumers and direct contact with the producer) are the values usually highlighted by SFSCs before environmental or economic values. In terms of policy tools, there are pros and cons in developing a specific EU labelling scheme which could bring more recognition, clarity, protection and value added to SFSCs, while potential costs might be an obstacle. Anyhow, a possible labelling scheme should take into account the current different stages and situations of development of SFSCs in the EU and be flexible enough accommodate these differences. Other policy tools, in particular training and knowledge exchange in marketing and communication are considered important and should continue to be funded by Rural Development programmes, as well as possibly other EU funds in view of the positive social and not specifically rural impacts.

There is increasing recognition that ecosystems and their services need to be managed in the face of environmental change. However, there is little consensus as to the optimum scale for management. This is particularly acute in the agricultural environment given the level of public investment in agri-environment schemes (AES). Using a novel multiscale hierarchical sampling design, we assess the effect of land use at multiple spatial scales (from location-within-field to regions) on farmland biodiversity. We show that on-farm biodiversity components depend on farming practices (organic vs. conventional) at farm and landscape scales, but this strongly interacts with fine- and coarse-scale variables. Different taxa respond to agricultural practice at different spatial scales and often at multiple spatial scales. Hence, AES need to target multiple spatial scales to maximize effectiveness. Novel policy levers may be needed to encourage multiple land managers within a landscape to adopt schemes that create landscape-level benefits.

Interdisciplinary monitoring of an organic stockless farming system has been carried out over ten years on a fertile silty clay loam in the main vegetable production area of the UK. The results draw together economic outcomes with agronomy, soil science and agro-ecology. Organic management has been used at the Kirton research site since conversion of a 3.2 ha unit in 1997. There is great variability in crop yields and marketing results but overall a successful ongoing vegetable production system has been established. Soil fertility, weeds, pests and diseases have been managed successfully without imports of animal manures or green waste compost. Production costs are well controlled and marketable yields are good. However, because the site is a research farm, the actual marketing of produce was sometimes weak and caused a low farm net margin. The site contributes valuable information to the European network of long-term fi eld experiments in organic farming for this particular farming system.

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A new computer model (EU-ROTATE_N) has been developed with the aim of improving nitrogen management on all farms across Europe which include fi eld vegetables in their rotations. It brings together aspects of many existing models and contains a number of features to make it applicable to organic producers (e.g. taking account of nitrogen fixation by legume containing leys, nitrogen conservation by winter cover crops and nitrogen supply by manures and composts). A key feature is the model’s ability to simulate economic output and this enables it to be of value to policy makers when considering the impact of new measures to reduce environmental pollution. This paper describes the model and some initial work that has been conducted to evaluate it under UK organic field vegetable systems with contrasting fertility building strategies.

A new model EU-ROTATE_N has been written which enables the assessment of the economic and environmental performance of nitrogen applied to crop rotations in either conventional or organic cropping for a wide range of crops and growing conditions in Europe. The model can simulate root development, the mineralization and release of N from soil organic matter and crop residues, the effect of freezing conditions, and water movement. New routines have also been added to estimate the effects of sub-optimal rates of N and spacing on the marketable outputs and gross margins. Model performance was tested against experimental results and broadly simulated the patterns of crop growth, N response and N losses. The model provides a mechanism for comparing the relative effects of differing cropping and fertilisation practices on yield gross margin and losses of nitrogen through leaching. The running of a number of scenarios has demonstrated that nitrogen management in field vegetable rotations can be improved in Europe by following at least Good Agricultural Practice. The model also provides the potential for suggesting improvements which have a minimal effect on gross margin whilst reducing nitrogen losses.