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Statins are among the most commonly prescribed drugs, and around every fourth person above the age of 40 is on statin medication. Therefore, it is of utmost clinical importance to understand the effect of statins on cancer cell plasticity and its consequences to not only patients with cancer but also patients who are on statins. Here, we find that statins induce a partial epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype in cancer cells of solid tumors. Using a comprehensive STRING network analysis of transcriptome, proteome, and phosphoproteome data combined with multiple mechanistic in vitro and functional in vivo analyses, we demonstrate that statins reduce cellular plasticity by enforcing a mesenchymal-like cell state that increases metastatic seeding ability on one side but reduces the formation of (secondary) tumors on the other due to heterogeneous treatment responses. Taken together, we provide a thorough mechanistic overview of the consequences of statin use for each step of cancer development, progression, and metastasis., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests J.T.S. reports the following disclosures: Bristol-Myers Sqibb, Celgene, and Roche (research funding); AstraZeneca, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Celgene, Immunocore, Novartis, Roche, and Shire (consulting or advisory role); AstraZeneca, Aurikamed, Baxalta, Bristol Myers Squibb, Celgene, Falk Foundation, iomedico, Immunocore, Novartis, Roche, and Shire (honoraria); and minor equity in iTheranostics and Pharma15 (<3%) and member of the Board of Directors for Pharma15, all outside the submitted work. All other authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Lung cancer is a prevalent and lethal cancer type that leads to more deaths than the next four major cancer types combined. Metastatic cancer spread is responsible for most cancer-related deaths but the cellular changes that enable cancer cells to leave the primary tumor and establish inoperable and lethal metastases remain poorly understood. To uncover genes that are specifically required to sustain metastasis survival or growth, we performed a genome-scale pooled lentiviral-shRNA library screen in cells that represent nonmetastatic and metastatic states of lung adenocarcinoma. Mitochondrial ribosome and mitochondria-associated genes were identified as top gene sets associated with metastasis-specific lethality. Metastasis-derived cell lines in vitro and metastases analyzed ex vivo from an autochthonous lung cancer mouse model had lower mitochondrial membrane potential and reduced mitochondrial functionality than nonmetastatic primary tumors. Electron microscopy of metastases uncovered irregular mitochondria with bridging and loss of normal membrane structure. Consistent with these findings, compounds that inhibit mitochondrial translation or replication had a greater effect on the growth of metastasis-derived cells. Finally, mice with established tumors developed fewer metastases upon treatment with phenformin in vivo . These results suggest that the metastatic cell state in lung adenocarcinoma is associated with a specifically altered mitochondrial functionality that can be therapeutically exploited. SIGNIFICANCE: This study characterizes altered mitochondria functionality of the metastatic cell state in lung cancer and opens new avenues for metastasis-specific therapeutic targeting., (©2020 American Association for Cancer Research.)

Dendritic cells (DCs) are highly specialized antigen-presenting cells that orchestrate adaptive immune responses to pathogens. During malaria infection pro- and anti-inflammatory T cell responses have to be tightly balanced to ensure parasite clearance without induction of severe immune pathologies. However, the precise role of CD11c high DCs in this process is still discussed controversially. Here, we demonstrate that long-term depletion of conventional CD11c high DCs in Plasmodium yoelii ( P. yoelii )-infected diphtheria toxin (DT)-treated RosaiDTR/CD11c-cre mice interferes with the activation of CD8 + and CD4 + T cells as well as CD4 + Foxp3 + regulatory T cells at early time points during infection. Moreover, systemic levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α were decreased in P. yoelii -infected mice deficient for CD11c high DCs compared to infected RosaiDTR controls. To further elucidate the importance of CD11c high DCs during the later phase of infection, we treated RosaiDTR/CD11c-cre and control mice with DT only from day 4 of P. yoelii infection onward. Strikingly, this approach had no impact on the activation and IFN-γ production of CD4 + and CD8 + effector T cells. These results indicate that CD11c high DCs play a crucial role in eliciting effector T cell responses during the initial phase, but are dispensable during ongoing infection with P. yoelii .

The cytokine IL-10 plays a crucial role during malaria infection by counteracting the pro-inflammatory immune response. We and others demonstrated that Plasmodium yoelii infection results in enhanced IL-10 production in CD4 + T cells accompanied by the induction of an immunosuppressive phenotype. However, it is unclear whether this is a direct effect caused by the parasite or an indirect consequence due to T cell activation by IL-10-producing antigen-presenting cells. Here, we demonstrate that CD11c + CD11b + CD8 - dendritic cells (DCs) produce elevated levels of IL-10 after P. yoelii infection of BALB/c mice. DC-specific ablation of IL-10 in P. yoelii -infected IL-10 flox/flox /CD11c-cre mice resulted in increased IFN-γ and TNF-α production with no effect on MHC-II, CD80, or CD86 expression in CD11c + DCs. Accordingly, DC-specific ablation of IL-10 exacerbated systemic IFN-γ and IL-12 production without altering P. yoelii blood stage progression. Strikingly, DC-specific inactivation of IL-10 in P. yoelii -infected mice interfered with the induction of IL-10-producing CD4 + T cells while raising the frequency of IFN-γ-secreting CD4 + T cells. These results suggest that P. yoelii infection promotes IL-10 production in DCs, which in turn dampens secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and supports the induction of CD4 + IL-10 + T cells.

Recently, we demonstrated elevated numbers of CD4(+) Foxp3(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells in Plasmodium yoelii-infected mice contributing to the regulation of anti-malarial immune response. However, it remains unclear whether this increase in Treg cells is due to thymus-derived Treg cell expansion or induction of Treg cells in the periphery. Here, we show that the frequency of Foxp3(+) Treg cells expressing neuropilin-1 (Nrp-1) decreased at early time-points during P. yoelii infection, whereas percentages of Helios(+) Foxp3(+) Treg cells remained unchanged. Both Foxp3(+) Nrp-1(+) and Foxp3(+) Nrp-1(-) Treg cells from P. yoelii-infected mice exhibited a similar T-cell receptor Vβ chain usage and methylation pattern in the Treg-specific demethylation region within the foxp3 locus. Strikingly, we did not observe induction of Foxp3 expression in Foxp3(-) T cells adoptively transferred to P. yoelii-infected mice. Hence, our results suggest that P. yoelii infection triggered expansion of naturally occurring Treg cells rather than de novo induction of Foxp3(+) Treg cells., (© 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)