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In this work the first metallurgical stages of the Southwest of the Iberian Peninsula are evaluated from a new theoretical and methodological approach: the technological processes used in the manufacture of metallurgical ceramics. From this way it aims to analyse the degree of interaction between the pottery and metallurgical activity, and how the introduction of the latter influenced the ways of making ceramic vessels. In this sense, by archaeometric analysis of metallurgical ceramics of three archaeological contexts from III Millennium B.C.E. (Cabezo Juré, La Junta and Valencina de la Concepción), the concept of technological choice as a theoretical framework is explored, focusing on the study of the early stages of the manufacturing process of these instruments. The results provided show the existence of significant differences in the technological processes used in the manufacture of various metallurgical ceramics, especially when compared with domestic vessels., En este trabajo se evalúan las primeras etapas metalúrgicas del Suroeste de la Península Ibérica desde una nueva perspectiva teórica y metodológica: los procesos tecnológicos empleados en la manufactura de instrumentos cerámicos vinculados a la metalurgia. De esta forma se pretende analizar el grado de interacción entre la actividad alfarera y la metalúrgica, y de qué manera la introducción de esta última influenció los modos de fabricar vasijas cerámicas. En este sentido, mediante el análisis arqueométrico de crisoles, toberas y vasijas de reducción documentadas en tres contextos arqueológicos del III Milenio A.N.E. (Cabezo Juré, La Junta y Valencina de la Concepción), se explora el concepto de elección tecnológica como marco teórico, focalizando el estudio de las primeras fases del proceso de fabricación de estos instrumentos cerámicos. Los resultados aportados ponen de manifiesto la existencia de diferencias significativas en los procesos tecnológicos empleados en la manufactura de las diferentes vasijas metalúrgicas, principalmente cuando las comparamos con los recipientes de carácter doméstico.

59 p. ; ill. ; 30 cm, Le moteur POP POP (MPP) est un moteur thermique passif très simple consistant en une chaudière et une tuyère de détente fonctionnant en cycle fermé évaporation condensation du fluide entre deux sources de chaleur. Ce dernier est très attrayant en raison de la simplicité de son concept rendant son coût de fabrication moins élevé qu’un autre moteur thermique. Nous avons mené une étude de conception et réalisation d’un démonstrateur plan de caloduc pulsé, et l’influence d’intégration d’une mousse métallique dans l’évaporateur. Ce travail expérimental est complété par une modélisation des transferts de chaleur et des écoulements diphasiques dans ce système L’objectif de cette étude est de mieux comprendre le fonctionnement de MPP, de relever les paramètres influant sur son fonctionnement afin d’améliorer ses performances et d’élargir les connaissances des phénomènes qu'abritent ces moteurs. Finalement nous étudions l’influence de la structure de la mousse métallique sur les mécanismes d’évaporation et de condensation dans ce système

Peirce-Smith converters (PSCs) are extensively used in the copper, nickel, and platinum group metals industries to remove iron and sulphur from the molten matte phase. This technology has not changed significantly since its inception in the early 20th century. The typical converting operation involves lateral purging of air/oxygen-enriched air into molten matte through a bank of tuyeres. This blowing operation occurs at low air pressure from the blowers, and the induced bubbling regime is considered inefficient from both a process and an energy utilization perspective. Inherent drawbacks include recurrent tuyere blockage, inevitable tuyere punching operation to clear airways, and low oxygen efficiency as a result of substantial air losses due to leakages. Investigations in the 1980s demonstrated that jetting into Cu and Ni converters could reduce or eliminate some of the process difficulties. In spite of these findings, very little progress has been made in the application of these concepts for converting of non-ferrous melts on a commercial scale.As part of its operational improvement and energy reduction initiative, Western Platinum embarked on a full-scale industrial evaluation of generating a jetting regime by using sonic injection. Prior to full-scale industrial evaluation, a numerical assessment was conducted to ascertain the feasibility of implementing sonic injection on Lonmin converters. The work included flow characterization at high injection pressures achieving sonic velocity at the tuyere exit. The 2D and 3D simulations of the three-phase system were carried out using the volume of fluid (VOF) and realizable k-ε turbulence models to account for the multiphase and turbulence nature of the flow, respectively. These models were applied using the commercial CFD numerical code FLUENT. This paper discusses the key findings regarding understanding of gas plume extension, velocity distribution, shear wall stress analysis, and phase distribution characteristics

The results of a theoretical analysis indicate that Coriolis force influences the flow field of a converter by the action on top- and bottom-blown gas and produces a top-gas clockwise and bottom-gas anticlockwise deflection. The deflection angle of the gas caused by Coriolis force from the outlet of the lance to the liquid surface for the top lance is smaller than the deflection angle for the bottom lance. Water-modelling studies to test and verify the influence of Coriolis force on the flow field of a converter show that the anticlockwise trend of the bottom gas due to Coriolis force can be superimposed with the anticlockwise trend of the flow field caused by the arrangement of bottom tuyeres and reduce the mixing time of the bath., The results of a theoretical analysis indicate that Coriolis force influences the flow field of a converter by the action on top- and bottom-blown gas and produces a top-gas clockwise and bottom-gas anticlockwise deflection. The deflection angle of the gas caused by Coriolis force from the outlet of the lance to the liquid surface for the top lance is smaller than the deflection angle for the bottom lance. Water-modelling studies to test and verify the influence of Coriolis force on the flow field of a converter show that the anticlockwise trend of the bottom gas due to Coriolis force can be superimposed with the anticlockwise trend of the flow field caused by the arrangement of bottom tuyeres and reduce the mixing time of the bath.

A computational fluid dynamics modelling study is presented of the interaction of the blast air and fuel flows in the blowpipe and tuyere nozzle using separate lances for each fuel. The effects are described of mixing, combustion and heat loads on the tuyere nozzle for two coal dispersion strategies. The results showed that a swirled annular cooling flow from the larger-diameter lance suppressed the dispersion of coal particles and suppressed burnout, whereas turning off the cooling air flow gave rise to a bluff body effect on the blast air, which enhanced coal dispersion., A computational fluid dynamics modelling study is presented of the interaction of the blast air and fuel flows in the blowpipe and tuyere nozzle using separate lances for each fuel. The effects are described of mixing, combustion and heat loads on the tuyere nozzle for two coal dispersion strategies. The results showed that a swirled annular cooling flow from the larger-diameter lance suppressed the dispersion of coal particles and suppressed burnout, whereas turning off the cooling air flow gave rise to a bluff body effect on the blast air, which enhanced coal dispersion.

Blowing practices in Peirce-Smith converters involve the injection of air or oxygen-enriched air into the Cu matte through tuyeres. Localised thermal gradients develop in the vicinity of the tuyere zone as a result of the injection, and erosion and wear of the refractory lining have been reported, together with clogging of the injection tubes. These have a negative effect on the performance of the converter and increase its operational costs. The possibility of implementing convergent/divergent nozzles to inject gases into the matte was investigated based on computational fluid dynamic calculations using commercial software. The numerical simulations were conducted for convergent/ divergent nozzles with different geometries. In all cases the hydrodynamics within the vessel showed similarities with previous calculations. Some differences in the velocity fields and flow patterns were observed compared with those obtained for conventional tuyeres. Recirculation of the molten material in the tuyere zone was still an issue, but the new nozzles seemed to decrease the extent of the problem and may help to decrease wear and erosion of the converter lining. The nozzles selected for the calculations promoted clogging due to a siphon effect caused by a decrease in the gas pressure at the nozzle inlet followed by a pressure increase in the diverging zone of the nozzle. This problem can be overcome by proper design of the injection nozzles., Blowing practices in Peirce-Smith converters involve the injection of air or oxygen-enriched air into the Cu matte through tuyeres. Localised thermal gradients develop in the vicinity of the tuyere zone as a result of the injection, and erosion and wear of the refractory lining have been reported, together with clogging of the injection tubes. These have a negative effect on the performance of the converter and increase its operational costs. The possibility of implementing convergent/divergent nozzles to inject gases into the matte was investigated based on computational fluid dynamic calculations using commercial software. The numerical simulations were conducted for convergent/ divergent nozzles with different geometries. In all cases the hydrodynamics within the vessel showed similarities with previous calculations. Some differences in the velocity fields and flow patterns were observed compared with those obtained for conventional tuyeres. Recirculation of the molten material in the tuyere zone was still an issue, but the new nozzles seemed to decrease the extent of the problem and may help to decrease wear and erosion of the converter lining. The nozzles selected for the calculations promoted clogging due to a siphon effect caused by a decrease in the gas pressure at the nozzle inlet followed by a pressure increase in the diverging zone of the nozzle. This problem can be overcome by proper design of the injection nozzles.

The flow patterns within a Peirce-Smith converter were studied in order to investigate how efficiently the reactor is used during blowing operations. The residence time distribution function for a fluid in a reactor is given by the C function, which represents the age distribution of a fluid leaving a reactor. A set of C curves was constructed by injecting an acidic solution into a plexiglass model of the converter. The C curves were obtained after recording the acid concentration in at least 18 different locations throughout the model and by varying the ratio of the height between the injection point and the water level, using a data acquisition system connected to a personal computer. The results of the evaluation of the C curves were compared with pictures and videos taken during injection of a colour tracer into the plexiglass model and also with previous numerical calculations of the blowing operation. The model results showed that the flow moves asymmetrically within the vessel, regardless of the amount of air injected into the system. Once the gas plume has developed, the liquid phase does not move following a well defined path, but moves accordingly to the mean flow velocities, creating some recirculation zones. Nearly 50% of the reactor operates as a mixing unit, so that the total capacity of the vessel is more readily able to perform conversion of the Cu. The application of the data to improve the design of the tuyeres used for the injection of gases into the Cu matte is discussed., The flow patterns within a Peirce-Smith converter were studied in order to investigate how efficiently the reactor is used during blowing operations. The residence time distribution function for a fluid in a reactor is given by the C function, which represents the age distribution of a fluid leaving a reactor. A set of C curves was constructed by injecting an acidic solution into a plexiglass model of the converter. The C curves were obtained after recording the acid concentration in at least 18 different locations throughout the model and by varying the ratio of the height between the injection point and the water level, using a data acquisition system connected to a personal computer. The results of the evaluation of the C curves were compared with pictures and videos taken during injection of a colour tracer into the plexiglass model and also with previous numerical calculations of the blowing operation. The model results showed that the flow moves asymmetrically within the vessel, regardless of the amount of air injected into the system. Once the gas plume has developed, the liquid phase does not move following a well defined path, but moves accordingly to the mean flow velocities, creating some recirculation zones. Nearly 50% of the reactor operates as a mixing unit, so that the total capacity of the vessel is more readily able to perform conversion of the Cu. The application of the data to improve the design of the tuyeres used for the injection of gases into the Cu matte is discussed.

Carbon was thought indispensable as a fuel and reductant in primary Cu smelting, initially in the form of charcoal in ancient times and more recently as coke or coal, but in 1878 John Hollway discovered that, with sufficient oxygen, pyritic Cu ores could be smelted to matte in a molten sulphide pool sustained only by the heat of combustion of the iron pyrites in the ore. Although apparently ore-specific and therefore of limited interest, the discovery is now recognised as the vital precursor of modern bath smelting technology because, for the first time, it showed that Cu sulphide smelting could be achieved in a molten sulphide pool oxidised by tuyere injection, and that no additional fuel was necessary if the oxidation rate was high enough and the feed material contained sufficient sulphur as fuel. Hollway’s novel solution to the problem of obtaining sufficient blowing rate for heat generation to make matte was to use a Bessemer converter. Cupola trials of continuous smelting while blowing were later carried out as a means of capturing elemental sulphur. The theoretical and technological background to Hollway’s discovery and its historical development in the context of current bath smelting practice are described., Carbon was thought indispensable as a fuel and reductant in primary Cu smelting, initially in the form of charcoal in ancient times and more recently as coke or coal, but in 1878 John Hollway discovered that, with sufficient oxygen, pyritic Cu ores could be smelted to matte in a molten sulphide pool sustained only by the heat of combustion of the iron pyrites in the ore. Although apparently ore-specific and therefore of limited interest, the discovery is now recognised as the vital precursor of modern bath smelting technology because, for the first time, it showed that Cu sulphide smelting could be achieved in a molten sulphide pool oxidised by tuyere injection, and that no additional fuel was necessary if the oxidation rate was high enough and the feed material contained sufficient sulphur as fuel. Hollway’s novel solution to the problem of obtaining sufficient blowing rate for heat generation to make matte was to use a Bessemer converter. Cupola trials of continuous smelting while blowing were later carried out as a means of capturing elemental sulphur. The theoretical and technological background to Hollway’s discovery and its historical development in the context of current bath smelting practice are described.

Physical, mathematical and modelling studies are reviewed which have supported the sustainable increase in the smelting capacity of the Teniente converter from 1 500 to 3 000 t/day in the 23 m long and 5 m diameter reactor. Numerical simulations to study the gravity waves produced on the bath free surface of the converter showed good correlation with experimental data and confirmed that the longitudinal waves are formed due to the reflection and transmission of the waves generated in the tuyere line zone. A train of longitudinal waves is formed due to the induced wave in the tuyere zone, which explains the jet oscillations which occur during the tapping of the slag and/or white metal converter products. Refractory wear in the converters is directly related to the submerged gas injection and the surface wave. The main wear zone occurs on the tuyere line due to slag and matte flow during bubble formation and detachment. A model which includes heat and mass transfer calculations for the formation and detachment of bubbles from tuyeres was extended and an analytic expression obtained for evaluating the oxygen consumption efficiency in the converter. The first computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model for the converter was developed in 1998 in which a turbulence model was used characterise the flow in the reactor. A CFD model and a slice water model with one submerged tuyere was used to re-examine the effect of the Froude number on bath dynamics including flow mixing in the bath, jet stability and splashing. The results confirmed that the flow was characterised by an unsteady jet, which moves toward the back wall and in some instances collapses. A complementary CFD study including two condensed phases of white metal and slag along a gas phase with air blown through 50 submerged tuyeres was also carried out. A 1:5 scaled water vessel was used to determine the oscillation frequencies and amplitudes of the bath surface. Studies of slag movement using a 3D slag motion CFD mod, Physical, mathematical and modelling studies are reviewed which have supported the sustainable increase in the smelting capacity of the Teniente converter from 1 500 to 3 000 t/day in the 23 m long and 5 m diameter reactor. Numerical simulations to study the gravity waves produced on the bath free surface of the converter showed good correlation with experimental data and confirmed that the longitudinal waves are formed due to the reflection and transmission of the waves generated in the tuyere line zone. A train of longitudinal waves is formed due to the induced wave in the tuyere zone, which explains the jet oscillations which occur during the tapping of the slag and/or white metal converter products. Refractory wear in the converters is directly related to the submerged gas injection and the surface wave. The main wear zone occurs on the tuyere line due to slag and matte flow during bubble formation and detachment. A model which includes heat and mass transfer calculations for the formation and detachment of bubbles from tuyeres was extended and an analytic expression obtained for evaluating the oxygen consumption efficiency in the converter. The first computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model for the converter was developed in 1998 in which a turbulence model was used characterise the flow in the reactor. A CFD model and a slice water model with one submerged tuyere was used to re-examine the effect of the Froude number on bath dynamics including flow mixing in the bath, jet stability and splashing. The results confirmed that the flow was characterised by an unsteady jet, which moves toward the back wall and in some instances collapses. A complementary CFD study including two condensed phases of white metal and slag along a gas phase with air blown through 50 submerged tuyeres was also carried out. A 1:5 scaled water vessel was used to determine the oscillation frequencies and amplitudes of the bath surface. Studies of slag movement using a 3D slag motion CFD mod

A new fluid bed roasting facility is being installed at Katanga Mining’s Cu-Co processing project in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Ore from two mine sites is sent to the Luilu metallurgical plant for treatment, an oxide ore originating from open pit mines and a sulphide ore from an underground mine. The average Cu and Co grades of the sulphide ore are 4.21% and 0.37%, respectively. Run-of-mine sulphide ore is milled, concentrated in flotation cells and the concentrate pumped to a thickener located near the roaster building. Thickener underflow is filtered and the cake sent to temporary storage. The 75 wt.% solids roaster feed slurry containing about 43% Cu and 4% Co is produced from the stored filter cake in a modified ball mill and fed to the roaster area. The sulphide ore is treated under sulphating roast conditions, followed by hydrometallurgical processing. Equipment for the first of two roasting line has been installed and plant commissioning is currently underway. The fluid bed design takes into account the high viscosity and solids content of the slurry feed, the hot shell is designed to avoid acid condensation, a large roaster diameter is employed for maximum capacity per roaster and a novel tuyere plate design is used to improve thermal stress relief. Complete heat and mass balances were performed using the METSIM software for the fluid bed roaster, calcine cooler and ancillary equipment, based on a solids feed rate of about 20 t/h. A minimum fluidisation velocity of 0.03 m/s was identified and an actual fluidisation velocity of 0.7 m/s was selected to ensure complete fluidisation of the bed in the bubbling bed regime while minimising solids elutriation to the cyclone. A roaster internal diameter of 8 m and a bed height of 1.8 m were chosen. The roaster plant is fully automated, with minimum operator intervention requirements., A new fluid bed roasting facility is being installed at Katanga Mining’s Cu-Co processing project in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Ore from two mine sites is sent to the Luilu metallurgical plant for treatment, an oxide ore originating from open pit mines and a sulphide ore from an underground mine. The average Cu and Co grades of the sulphide ore are 4.21% and 0.37%, respectively. Run-of-mine sulphide ore is milled, concentrated in flotation cells and the concentrate pumped to a thickener located near the roaster building. Thickener underflow is filtered and the cake sent to temporary storage. The 75 wt.% solids roaster feed slurry containing about 43% Cu and 4% Co is produced from the stored filter cake in a modified ball mill and fed to the roaster area. The sulphide ore is treated under sulphating roast conditions, followed by hydrometallurgical processing. Equipment for the first of two roasting line has been installed and plant commissioning is currently underway. The fluid bed design takes into account the high viscosity and solids content of the slurry feed, the hot shell is designed to avoid acid condensation, a large roaster diameter is employed for maximum capacity per roaster and a novel tuyere plate design is used to improve thermal stress relief. Complete heat and mass balances were performed using the METSIM software for the fluid bed roaster, calcine cooler and ancillary equipment, based on a solids feed rate of about 20 t/h. A minimum fluidisation velocity of 0.03 m/s was identified and an actual fluidisation velocity of 0.7 m/s was selected to ensure complete fluidisation of the bed in the bubbling bed regime while minimising solids elutriation to the cyclone. A roaster internal diameter of 8 m and a bed height of 1.8 m were chosen. The roaster plant is fully automated, with minimum operator intervention requirements.

The products and technologies available from Kumera, Finland, are described for Cu smelting applications. Peirce-Smith converters are now supplied with diameters of up 4.5 m and lengths of 13.41 m with final blister Cu capacity of 310 t. The converter shell is made of boiler steel plate reinforced around the mouth, which is lined with fire-resistant cast steel and is surrounded by an apron shield which protects the shell and tuyere valves against molten Cu splashes. The apron shield also reduces air leakage to the converter hood, preventing dilution of SO2 gas. The supporting structure usually consists of four bogies, each with two support rollers running on roller bearings. The heads of recent converters have a simple dish shape, eliminating the need for strengthening beams and fastening springs. An installation panel for air tuyere valves is attached to the shell. The tuyere valves have low air flow resistance and a long service life. Converter hoods are used to significantly reduce emissions. The main components of rotary anode furnaces for refining the blister Cu for casting anodes include a cylindrical shell drum, dish or flat end walls, water cooled mouth, pneumatically actuated hatch and a burner for natural gas or heavy oil. The size of the furnaces has increased to approximately 4.5 x 13.5 m with a capacity of 600 t Cu. Anode furnaces are available for different converting processes such as flash, Mitsubishi, Peirce-Smith and El Teniente processes. Other products covered include drive units and their control systems for rotating furnaces, power transmissions, steam dryers, conveyors, roll crushers and bucket excavators for the lifting and dewatering of granulated matte and slag., The products and technologies available from Kumera, Finland, are described for Cu smelting applications. Peirce-Smith converters are now supplied with diameters of up 4.5 m and lengths of 13.41 m with final blister Cu capacity of 310 t. The converter shell is made of boiler steel plate reinforced around the mouth, which is lined with fire-resistant cast steel and is surrounded by an apron shield which protects the shell and tuyere valves against molten Cu splashes. The apron shield also reduces air leakage to the converter hood, preventing dilution of SO2 gas. The supporting structure usually consists of four bogies, each with two support rollers running on roller bearings. The heads of recent converters have a simple dish shape, eliminating the need for strengthening beams and fastening springs. An installation panel for air tuyere valves is attached to the shell. The tuyere valves have low air flow resistance and a long service life. Converter hoods are used to significantly reduce emissions. The main components of rotary anode furnaces for refining the blister Cu for casting anodes include a cylindrical shell drum, dish or flat end walls, water cooled mouth, pneumatically actuated hatch and a burner for natural gas or heavy oil. The size of the furnaces has increased to approximately 4.5 x 13.5 m with a capacity of 600 t Cu. Anode furnaces are available for different converting processes such as flash, Mitsubishi, Peirce-Smith and El Teniente processes. Other products covered include drive units and their control systems for rotating furnaces, power transmissions, steam dryers, conveyors, roll crushers and bucket excavators for the lifting and dewatering of granulated matte and slag.

The objective of the book is to show how optimising a blast furnace requires not only the transfer of best practice but also conceptual understanding of which particular measures work well in some cases but not others. Chapters are included on: the furnace contents and gas flow; the burden of sinter, pellets and lump ore; coke; the injection of coal, oil and gas; burden calculation and mass balances; the process of burden descent and gas-flow control; furnace productivity and efficiency; hot metal and slag; casthouse operation; and the special situations of fines in the ore burden, moisture input, recirculating elements, charging-rate variability, stops and start-ups; blow-down and blow-in from new. Appendices include a glossary, lists of further reading and references, rules of thumb, details of coke quality tests and a subject index., 1 ind., The objective of the book is to show how optimising a blast furnace requires not only the transfer of best practice but also conceptual understanding of which particular measures work well in some cases but not others. Chapters are included on: the furnace contents and gas flow; the burden of sinter, pellets and lump ore; coke; the injection of coal, oil and gas; burden calculation and mass balances; the process of burden descent and gas-flow control; furnace productivity and efficiency; hot metal and slag; casthouse operation; and the special situations of fines in the ore burden, moisture input, recirculating elements, charging-rate variability, stops and start-ups; blow-down and blow-in from new. Appendices include a glossary, lists of further reading and references, rules of thumb, details of coke quality tests and a subject index.

The section includes the following papers: Converter aisle improvements at Xstrata Nickel's Sudbury smelter, by Salt B. and Cerilli E., p.333-349, 3 refs.; Quality control improvements in Bessemer matte production at the Vale Inco Copper Cliff smelter, by Zanini M., Wong D. and Cooke D., p.351-370, 7 refs.; Hot gas generators and rotary kiln burner technology, by Vaccaro M., p.371-380; Evaluation of Onca-Puma laterite dusting behaviour and dust recovery techniques, by Souza A.B., Aquino R.M. and Goncalves D.J., p.381-390; Front line planning and scheduling at Vale Inco's Ni-Cu matte processing pland, by Dorigo U.A., Yalcin T., Duncan D. and Montgomery J., p.391-399, 3 refs.; Optimisation of the Xstrata Nickel - Sudbury smelter converter aisle using discrete event simulation, by Coursol P., Bailey M. and Mackey P.J., p.401-413, 11 refs.; and Four years of DC arc smelting of PGM-containing oxide feed materials at Mintek, by Geldenhuys I.J. and Jones R.T., p.415-427, 7 refs., The section includes the following papers: Converter aisle improvements at Xstrata Nickel's Sudbury smelter, by Salt B. and Cerilli E., p.333-349, 3 refs.; Quality control improvements in Bessemer matte production at the Vale Inco Copper Cliff smelter, by Zanini M., Wong D. and Cooke D., p.351-370, 7 refs.; Hot gas generators and rotary kiln burner technology, by Vaccaro M., p.371-380; Evaluation of Onca-Puma laterite dusting behaviour and dust recovery techniques, by Souza A.B., Aquino R.M. and Goncalves D.J., p.381-390; Front line planning and scheduling at Vale Inco's Ni-Cu matte processing pland, by Dorigo U.A., Yalcin T., Duncan D. and Montgomery J., p.391-399, 3 refs.; Optimisation of the Xstrata Nickel - Sudbury smelter converter aisle using discrete event simulation, by Coursol P., Bailey M. and Mackey P.J., p.401-413, 11 refs.; and Four years of DC arc smelting of PGM-containing oxide feed materials at Mintek, by Geldenhuys I.J. and Jones R.T., p.415-427, 7 refs.

Splashing in a Peirce-Smith converter, caused by injection of air into the bath, was modelled in a laboratory using a clear glass converter-shaped vessel with water and oil to represent the matte and slag phases respectively. The factors studied included air flow rate, tuyere angles, the depth the tuyeres were submerged, tuyere blockage, and liquid heights and viscosities. A mathematical model was developed using dimensional analysis to calculate the amount of splashed material., Splashing in a Peirce-Smith converter, caused by injection of air into the bath, was modelled in a laboratory using a clear glass converter-shaped vessel with water and oil to represent the matte and slag phases respectively. The factors studied included air flow rate, tuyere angles, the depth the tuyeres were submerged, tuyere blockage, and liquid heights and viscosities. A mathematical model was developed using dimensional analysis to calculate the amount of splashed material.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was used to analyse the interaction between an air jet and molten matte during the first stages of blowing a Peirce-Smith converter. Both bubbling and open jet stages were simulated using the Large Eddy Simulation and Reynolds Stress turbulence models. The results may lead to improvements in the design of copper converter tuyeres., Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was used to analyse the interaction between an air jet and molten matte during the first stages of blowing a Peirce-Smith converter. Both bubbling and open jet stages were simulated using the Large Eddy Simulation and Reynolds Stress turbulence models. The results may lead to improvements in the design of copper converter tuyeres.

The bath of a Falconbridge slag-making converter (SMC) is covered with a thick layer of slag and a stream of solids is charged on to the top of the bath. Air is injected into the bath through tuyeres, resulting in some solids being carried over with the gases leaving the converter mouth. The effect of changing from injection through tuyeres to a solid plug was investigated. It was found the existing models for plume development in baths covered with a thin layer of slag could be extended to the thick layer conditions of the SMC. Melting times using the plug were comparable to those with tuyeres, and the thickness of the solid layer could be controlled by adjusting the gas flow rate and configuration of the plug. The test was stopped due to excessive wear of the porous plug., The bath of a Falconbridge slag-making converter (SMC) is covered with a thick layer of slag and a stream of solids is charged on to the top of the bath. Air is injected into the bath through tuyeres, resulting in some solids being carried over with the gases leaving the converter mouth. The effect of changing from injection through tuyeres to a solid plug was investigated. It was found the existing models for plume development in baths covered with a thin layer of slag could be extended to the thick layer conditions of the SMC. Melting times using the plug were comparable to those with tuyeres, and the thickness of the solid layer could be controlled by adjusting the gas flow rate and configuration of the plug. The test was stopped due to excessive wear of the porous plug.

Efficient tuyere line management contributes to optimum blowing rates, increased refractory life and improved safety in the operations of gas- blown copper converters such as the Noranda Reactor and Teniente, Peirce- Smith and Hoboken converters. Recent developments in the equipment used for tuyere punching, silencing, pyrometry and refractory drilling are described, as well as how the proper use of the equipment can lead to improvements in operations and safety., Efficient tuyere line management contributes to optimum blowing rates, increased refractory life and improved safety in the operations of gas- blown copper converters such as the Noranda Reactor and Teniente, Peirce- Smith and Hoboken converters. Recent developments in the equipment used for tuyere punching, silencing, pyrometry and refractory drilling are described, as well as how the proper use of the equipment can lead to improvements in operations and safety.

The concept of injecting high-pressure air through the tuyeres of a Peirce-Smith converter was first tested in a smelter 30 years ago. Despite the potential for an increase in capacity, since then the core concepts, with the exception of shrouded tuyeres with substantial oxygen enrichment, have not been implemented in smelters. The fundamentals of the technology are reviewed, together with its basic economics and potential uses., The concept of injecting high-pressure air through the tuyeres of a Peirce-Smith converter was first tested in a smelter 30 years ago. Despite the potential for an increase in capacity, since then the core concepts, with the exception of shrouded tuyeres with substantial oxygen enrichment, have not been implemented in smelters. The fundamentals of the technology are reviewed, together with its basic economics and potential uses.

The Thai Copper Industries smelter and refinery complex is located near the port of MapTaPut, about 200 km south of Bangkok, Thailand, and has a capacity of 165 000 tonnes/year of cathode. The primary smelting unit is a Teniente converter, and the matte is refined in Hoboken converters fitted with Air Liquide shrouded injectors (ALSI). These injectors operate at sonic velocity under a flow regime that does not allow plugging to occur, so there are no tuyere punching machines installed. The major technical aspects of the commissioning are described, including the development of operating practices for the ALSI technology., The Thai Copper Industries smelter and refinery complex is located near the port of MapTaPut, about 200 km south of Bangkok, Thailand, and has a capacity of 165 000 tonnes/year of cathode. The primary smelting unit is a Teniente converter, and the matte is refined in Hoboken converters fitted with Air Liquide shrouded injectors (ALSI). These injectors operate at sonic velocity under a flow regime that does not allow plugging to occur, so there are no tuyere punching machines installed. The major technical aspects of the commissioning are described, including the development of operating practices for the ALSI technology.

The pressure pulse spectrum generated by the gas dispersion processes in a Peirce Smith converter was investigated to see whether it might offer valuable information on the state of physical gas-liquid interactions within the high-temperature converter system. Simultaneous measurements of pressure frequencies in four tuyeres were made using high- frequency pressure transducers. Digital data processing techniques included power spectral density plotting, band-pass filtering and a principal component analysis. The process was characterised throughout by a dominant 3 Hz pulse signature attributed to the formation of lateral gas envelopes. In particular, test tuyeres in the tuyere line tended to operate synchronously at the dominant frequency, regardless of operating conditions tested and despite being distributed along the converter. Synchronous behaviour is thought to arise from acoustic coupling and possible resonance behaviour of the converter's gas delivery system., The pressure pulse spectrum generated by the gas dispersion processes in a Peirce Smith converter was investigated to see whether it might offer valuable information on the state of physical gas-liquid interactions within the high-temperature converter system. Simultaneous measurements of pressure frequencies in four tuyeres were made using high- frequency pressure transducers. Digital data processing techniques included power spectral density plotting, band-pass filtering and a principal component analysis. The process was characterised throughout by a dominant 3 Hz pulse signature attributed to the formation of lateral gas envelopes. In particular, test tuyeres in the tuyere line tended to operate synchronously at the dominant frequency, regardless of operating conditions tested and despite being distributed along the converter. Synchronous behaviour is thought to arise from acoustic coupling and possible resonance behaviour of the converter's gas delivery system.