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Context The body condition score (BCS) is an easily measured, fast, inexpensive, and non-invasive tool to estimate the amount of body fat and to evaluate the nutritional status of dairy cows. Aims The aim of this study was to validate BCS in primiparous Gyr cows by using ultrasound measurements of subcutaneous fat (FT). Methods Body weight, BCS (score of 1–9) and FT measured at five body sites (FT1–FT5) were recorded during the prepartum and postpartum periods. Linear regression of FT on BCS and Pearson’s correlations were used. Key results The correlations between body weight and FT measures ranged from 0.49 to 0.63 and from 0.51 to 0.64 during the pre- and postpartum periods respectively, while the correlations between BCS and FT ranged from 0.69 to 0.82 and from 0.67 to 0.78 in the two periods. The BCS better reflected the variation in FT before and after calving than did body weight. Linear regression models were used to explore the relationship between BCS and FT measurements considering the former as the predictor variable. The coefficients of determination (R2) obtained for the prepartum variables ranged from 0.48 to 0.67. The highest R2 was obtained for the model that included FT measured in the lumbar region midway between the last rib and tuber coxae (hook; FT4) as the response variable. The R2 of the models whose response variables were obtained during the postpartum period ranged from 0.45 to 0.60. The highest R2 was observed when the pelvic region midway between the tuber coxae (hook) and tuber ischii (pin; FT2) was used as a response variable. Conclusions The correlations between BCS and FT validate the use of BCS obtained by visual assessment as a tool for evaluating fat reserves in Gyr dams before calving and during first lactation. Among the FT measurements, FT2 and FT4 are interesting because both are easy to measure and showed higher correlations and coefficients of determination with BCS before calving and lactation. Implications The BCS is an accessible tool for producers that requires only training of the evaluator and that is economically viable since no special equipment is needed.

Objective This study evaluated the spread of a two-point transversus abdominis plane (TAP) injection in canine cadavers. Compared with previous techniques, the two-point TAP injection was developed to increase the consistency of local anaesthetic spread to the nerve segments T11, T12, L1, L2 and L3. Study design Prospective experimental trial. Animals Five fresh canine cadavers. Methods Two-point TAP injections were performed under ultrasound guidance by a single trained individual in canine cadavers (15.7–43.0 kg). Each hemi-abdomen was infiltrated and evaluated independently for a total of 10 evaluations of the technique. The first injection was performed at the level of the costo-chondral junction of the thirteenth rib, and the second injection was performed cranial to the tuber coxae. Each injection comprised 0.3 mL kg–1 methylene blue solution (0.0015 mg mL–1). Ten minutes after the injections, abdominal wall dissection was performed, and any nerves stained for a minimum of 10 mm along their long axis were identified and recorded. Results During all injections, separation of the internal oblique and transversus abdominis muscles was observed on ultrasound. On dissection, branches of T12, T13, L1, L2 and L3 were adequately stained in 30%, 100%, 100%, 90% and 90% of injections, respectively. No staining of branches of T11 occurred in any of the cadavers. In one hemi-abdomen, branches of L1 and L3, but not L2, were stained. Conclusions and clinical relevance This study indicates that the two-point TAP injection delivers consistent dye dispersion to adequately stain branches of T13, L1, L2 and L3, with no coverage of T11 and poor coverage of T12, in fresh canine cadavers. An in vivo study using local anaesthetic should be performed to evaluate the analgesic efficacy of this technique in mid to caudal abdominal surgeries.

This thesis focuses on in vivo studies in horses for the long-term evaluation of various regenerative approaches for articular cartilage and bone repair using cell-free techniques. The equine tuber coxae was introduced as a novel site to study bone regeneration using tricalcium phosphate (TCP)-based scaffolds, produced by additive manufacturing techniques. The new site proved very convenient, because of easiness to approach, low risk of contamination and minimal clinical impact. The TCP scaffolds showed good incorporation into the surrounding tissue with clear osteoconductivity and good capacity for new bone formation. Constant porosity appeared to achieve enhanced bone formation better than a gradually changing pore size in a follow-up study. Cartilage regeneration was studied in artificially created defects in the stifle (knee) joint. A study on fixation of the implants showed that press-fit placed osteochondral implants were to be preferred over only chondral implants for achieving optimal retention. A scaffold existing completely of decellularized cartilage-derived matrix (CDM) was compared to a scaffold made of the same CDM for the cartilage phase combined with a three-dimensionally (3D) printed calcium phosphate -based scaffold for the bone phase. The latter functioned well for bone repair but failed in producing functional tissue in the cartilage phase. A novel approach for repair of chondral defects relying on a self-sealing hydrogel that adheres to the surrounding cartilage surrounding by covalent bonds showed after 7 months repair tissue that was histologically superior to that in the nano-fracture treated control defects. Though preliminary, this outcome seems promising, warranting further exploration.

This thesis focuses on in vivo studies in horses for the long-term evaluation of various regenerative approaches for articular cartilage and bone repair using cell-free techniques. The equine tuber coxae was introduced as a novel site to study bone regeneration using tricalcium phosphate (TCP)-based scaffolds, produced by additive manufacturing techniques. The new site proved very convenient, because of easiness to approach, low risk of contamination and minimal clinical impact. The TCP scaffolds showed good incorporation into the surrounding tissue with clear osteoconductivity and good capacity for new bone formation. Constant porosity appeared to achieve enhanced bone formation better than a gradually changing pore size in a follow-up study. Cartilage regeneration was studied in artificially created defects in the stifle (knee) joint. A study on fixation of the implants showed that press-fit placed osteochondral implants were to be preferred over only chondral implants for achieving optimal retention. A scaffold existing completely of decellularized cartilage-derived matrix (CDM) was compared to a scaffold made of the same CDM for the cartilage phase combined with a three-dimensionally (3D) printed calcium phosphate -based scaffold for the bone phase. The latter functioned well for bone repair but failed in producing functional tissue in the cartilage phase. A novel approach for repair of chondral defects relying on a self-sealing hydrogel that adheres to the surrounding cartilage surrounding by covalent bonds showed after 7 months repair tissue that was histologically superior to that in the nano-fracture treated control defects. Though preliminary, this outcome seems promising, warranting further exploration.

Objective To describe a biopsy technique in standing horses with minimal morbidity that consistently provides a substantial bone biopsy with intact, undamaged architecture. Study Design Experimental, prospective study. Animals Ten Thoroughbred horses. Methods Biopsies were obtained from the tuber coxae of 10 sedated, standing horses using an oscillating saw. Bilateral biopsies, separated by 60 days, were evaluated with micro-computed tomography (microCT). The first biopsy was prepared for decalcified histology; the second for undecalcified histology. Both biopsies were evaluated qualitatively for histologic quality. Results The biopsy technique did not result in any significant complications, was well tolerated and all biopsies were of good histologic quality. Conclusion Cortical and trabecular bone biopsies can be successfully collected from the tuber coxa using a simple technique that creates minimal morbidity and allows sequential samples to be collected. The biopsies were larger than those described previously, provided adequate bone for multiple histologic sections, and had intact, undamaged architecture on examination with microCT and light microscopy.

Diseases of the stifle joint remain a challenge for veterinarians. The objective of this study was to achieve a valuable acupuncture suggestive diagnosis to be considered for stifle joint diseases in horses. Thirty-nine nonlame horses involved in different activities were assessed. Acupuncture was independently performed by two evaluators. Reactions of the animal when pressurizing the point suggestive of stifle disease (PSSD), Bladder-20 and/or Bladder-21, were considered as the inclusion criteria for inclusion in the stifle group (SG, n = 31), and the animals with no reactions were assigned to the control group (n = 8). Radiographic and ultrasonographic examinations were performed and evaluated by two independent professionals blinded to the group allocation. Thermographic examination of the PSSD and stifles was also performed, after acclimatization. The ultrasound scores and radiographic findings were higher in the SG than in the control group. Thermography evidenced increased temperature in the PSSD and stifles in the SG. The minimum acupuncture diagnostic criteria for stifle joint disease had a sensitivity of 87.5% and a specificity of 57.0%, and the addition of the acupoints Gallbladder–dorsal tuber coxae, Gallbladder-27, and Spleen-13 to the minimum diagnostic criteria improved sensitivity and specificity. In conclusion, assessing the reaction at the demonstrated acupoints can facilitate a diagnosis of a potential stifle lesion. Keywords: acupuncture, equine, horse, radiography, ultrasonography

Background With the view of implementing gait symmetry measurements in Thoroughbreds in training for early detection of injuries, repeatability of inertial measurement unit (IMU) gait parameters needs to be established. Objectives To assess the variation of head and pelvis movement symmetry in Thoroughbreds in training. Study design Repeated observations in horses in race training. Methods Daily and weekly repeat gait assessments were conducted in 14 Thoroughbreds equipped with IMUs on poll, sacrum and right (RTC) and left (LTC) tuber coxae. Gait was assessed in trot, in-hand, on a level concrete surface. Difference between vertical displacement minima and maxima and range of motion (ROM) were obtained. Ranges containing 50% (median), 75, 90 and 95% of absolute daily and weekly differences were calculated and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) calculated for daily and weekly repeats. Results Median absolute daily differences ranged from 4 to 7 mm and median weekly differences from 4 to 8 mm. 90% of daily differences were between 9 and 16 mm and 90% of weekly differences between 11 and 19 mm. ICC values were found on average across sensors and gait parameters as 0.73 (ranging from 0.40 to 0.92 across parameters) for daily repeats and as 0.65 (0.27 to 0.91) for weekly repeats. Main limitations Horses were of varying training and movement asymmetry levels, and no veterinary lameness examination was conducted. Conclusions Daily and weekly repeat gait assessments in this group of Thoroughbreds in training show lower ICC values than previously reported from within-day repeats in horses during lameness examinations. We recommend conducting repeatability studies for specific groups of horses when planning long-term studies aiming at identifying horses at risk of injury.

Data on age and body weight at breeding, parity, previous litter size, days open and some descriptive body linear traits from 389 meat-type, prolific Black Bengal goats in Tripura State of India, were collected for 3 and 1/2 years (2007 to 2010) and analyzed using logistic regression model. The objectives of the study were i) to evaluate the effect of age and body weight at breeding, parity, previous litter size and days open on litter size of does; and ii) to investigate if body linear type traits influenced litter size in meat-type, prolific goats. The incidence of 68.39% multiple births with a prolificacy rate of 175.07% was recorded. Higher age (>2.69 year), higher parity order (>2.31), more body weight at breeding (>20.5 kg) and larger previous litter size (>1.65) showed an increase likelihood of multiple litter size when compared to single litter size. There was a strong, positive relationship between litter size and various body linear type traits like neck length (>22.78 cm), body length (>54.86 cm), withers height (>48.85 cm), croup height (>50.67 cm), distance between tuber coxae bones (>11.38 cm) and distance between tuber ischii bones (>4.56 cm) for discriminating the goats bearing multiple fetuses from those bearing a single fetus.

Pelvic movement is altered in hind limb lame horses. A simple method using one inertial measurement unit (IMU) attached to the sacrum, which objectively measures 'hip hike', will help detecting hind limb lameness in large scale studies. In this study, IMUs over the sacrum and the left and right tuber coxae (TC) quantified vertical movement symmetry (MS) in 10 clinically lame horses. A simple geometrical model was used to estimate TC movement from the sacrum IMU. The differences between measured and estimated MS values (mean±SD) and MS changes during different exercise conditions (straight, circle, flexion) were quantified using established MS parameters to assess the performance of the sacral IMU for estimating TC movement. Mean differences between measured and estimated MS values were variable between horses and ranged from 5 to 30 mm, SD of differences ranged from 7 to 14 mm. However, the difference between measured and estimated change in MS induced by lungeing or flexion test, was lower, with a value

Trotting a horse in circles is a standard and important part of the subjective equine lameness examination, yet objective data on this form of locomotion are sparse. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of trotting in a circle on head and trunk movement symmetry. Vertical movements of the head, withers, os sacrum and left and right tuber coxae were measured using inertial sensors as 12 sound horses were trotted on a hard surface in a straight line and in a circle on both reins. Seven asymmetry measures and hip hike were calculated for each horse for at least nine strides of comparable stride duration across the three conditions (deviation on horse level ⩽3.7% stride duration). Trotting in a circle introduced systematic changes to the movement pattern of all five body landmarks, affecting most asymmetry measures. On average the asymmetry magnitude was comparable for midline locations between reins and for the tuber coxae on opposite reins with few exceptions, although individual horses showed unsystematic differences between the two reins. The results from this study showed that the thresholds for objective discrimination between lame and non-lame horses will need adjustment on the circle due to the observed asymmetry bias.

Zusammenfassung An funf Milchkuhen wurde mittels Knochenbiopsie der Zinkstatus im Tuber coxae bei Zink-Depletion und -Repletion mit halbsynthetischer Diat verfolgt. In der Spongiosa mit rotem Knochenmark des Hufthockers trat nach sechs Wochen Zinkdepletion ein Abfall der Zinkkonzentration auf 64 % des Ausgangswertes ein. Nach 19wochiger Depletionsdauer war eine noch deutlichere Zinkverarmung nachzuweisen (36 % des Ausgangswertes). Die Knochenanalyse des Tuber coxae kann daher eine wertvolle Erganzung zur Uberprufung des Zinkstatus im Organismus darstellen. Repletionseffekte waren nur schwach, die Zinkeinlagerung im Knochen dauert demnach relativ langer als in Serum und Milch. In der Spongiosa mit gelbem Mark zeigte sich eine noch wesentlich geringere Zinkdynamik. Die Zinkverteilung im gesamten Os ilium war nicht homogen. Die Zinkkonzentration nahm von der Knorpelschicht uber Hufthocker, Kreuzhocker, Darmbeinflugel und Darmbeinsaule ab. Die Anwendung der Knochenbiopsie erfordert daher eine genau definierte Probenahme. Zwischen linkem und rechtem Darmbein wurden fur die entsprechenden Knochen keine Unterschiede f estgestellt.

Three hundred veterinary students were divided randomly into two groups to answer a questionnaire inquiring how painful they considered 23 conditions affecting cattle (seven of which were illustrated) to be, on either a numerical rating scale (NRS) or a visual analogue scale (VAS). The individual responses were used to assess whether cluster analysis could be used to divide the population into distinct groups. The ratios of men to women in the two groups were similar. The NRS scores ranged from 1 to 10 and the VAS scores ranged from 0 to 10. The conditions that were illustrated with a picture had a wider range of scores (2.65 to 9.0 v 2.67 to 7.93) and a slightly higher mean score (5.71 v 5.34) than those without pictures. Fracture of the tuber coxae, dystocia requiring the help of two people, and serious mastitis, were scored as the most painful conditions in adult cattle. Using the median score of each student as an outcome, their sex and year of enrollment and the scoring scale were significant. Women scored 0.9 points higher than men. Cluster analysis revealed two distinct groups in both the VAS and NRS, but the distribution was more even among the students using the VAS. This group was used in further analysis, and one cluster had the most men and more students with several siblings.

Reasons for performing study: At rising trot the rider sits alternately down on one diagonal pair of limbs and rises up on the other. The possible effects on asymmetry of locomotion induced by rising trot have rarely been studied. Objectives: To demonstrate whether, and if so to what extent, rising trot causes asymmetrical loading in the vertical ground reaction force (VGRF) and/or asymmetrical effects on the locomotion pattern, comparing left and right side. Methods: Seven elite horses were ridden in left and right rising trot on a treadmill, while VGRF and kinematics were measured, with the horses' neck raised, the poll high and the bridge of the nose slightly in front of the vertical. Results: Force loading was generally increased in the limbs of the sitting diagonal. The lumbar back was lower between mid-stances of the sitting and nonsitting stance, pelvic roll was limited and the tuber coxae heights were lower on the sitting side. Maximal hindlimb protraction was decreased. Forelimb retraction was increased and the T6 height decreased. Conclusion: The rider movement induces an uneven biphasic load that affects the back, pelvis and limb kinematics and VGRF. Potential relevance: The generally advocated technique of alternating limbs when riding in rising trot is supported. The VGRF changes between rising on the left or right diagonal were distinct, but minor in absolute terms and therefore unlikely to have direct impact on the occurrence of locomotor injuries. Knowledge of an increase of asymmetry in rising trot is potentially useful for riders/trainers.

Summary Reasons for performing study: Hindlimb lameness is common and can be difficult to diagnose or quantify in evaluating response to nerve blocks. An objective measure of lameness can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment's contribution to evidence-based medicine. The inertial sensor system can be used to capture 6 degree of freedom movement during over ground locomotion and here was used to quantify tuber coxae movement in nonlame and lame horses. Hypothesis: Tuber coxae movement is useful for discriminating between nonlame and lame horses. Objectives: To measure left and right tuber coxae movement in lame and nonlame horses during over ground locomotion and to implement a linear discriminant analysis to discriminate between lame and nonlame horses. Methods: Two inertial sensors were attached to the skin over left and right tuber coxae of 21 horses (9 mildly and 12 not lame). Horses were trotted on a hard surface. A total of 1021 strides were collected. For each stride 34 features were extracted from the dorsoventral and craniocaudal movement and used in 2 different classification scenarios (lame vs. nonlame or left lame, right lame and nonlame) using linear discriminant analysis. Results: Six degree of freedom inertial sensors were successfully used to collect kinematic data continuously from left and right tuber coxae in horses during over ground locomotion. These data were used for an automated classification of lameness. In the first scenario, a sensitivity of 89% was achieved with a specificity of 75%. In the second scenario, all horses could be correctly assigned to the correct class in a simple 3 class reclassification test. Potential relevance: A mobile system that reliably detects and quantifies hindlimb lameness in horses during unconstrained locomotion could be a valuable tool to perform an evidence-based assessment of lameness in horses in a clinical setting, e.g. before and after nerve blocks or before and after surgery.

A longitudinal observational study of 15 red deer farms in New Zealand was carried out for a 2‐year period. To assess the body condition of deer, a scoring chart was developed with scores ranging from 1 (lean) to 5 (fat) with half‐unit increments. Scores were given after palpating the tuber coxae, sacrum, and rump area of the deer standing straight and quiet. Repeatability and reproducibility were evaluated on 39 yearling hinds and 90 adult hinds on four properties which were independently scored twice by two assessors to investigate assessor bias and consistency. A body condition score (BCS) was assigned to 1400 and 2100 hinds in consecutive years in March before mating, in September before calving, and in March of the next year at weaning. There were wide variations of individual hind body condition and mean hind body condition between farms. Overall, yearling hinds lost body condition during winter and subsequently during lactation up to weaning. Repeatability and reproducibility were above 0....

Phosphorus (P) deficiency is a major constraint to the productivity of breeder herds grazing low-P rangelands due to adverse effects on growth and fertility. However, P supplementation during the wet season, when additional dietary P is most needed, is often difficult due to practical constraints. Body P reserves in breeders can be mobilised and alleviate dietary P deficiency within an annual cycle. Approaches to estimate bone P reserves and net mobilisation or replenishment of P from the analysis of rib and hip (tuber coxae) biopsies are discussed. In at least some circumstances, breeder cows grazing P-deficient pastures mobilise bone P to alleviate the effects of diet P deficiency. Recent experiments with breeders have investigated mobilisation of body P to alleviate the adverse effects of dietary P deficiency during pregnancy and early lactation, and subsequent replenishment of body P reserves. Both mature cows and first-calf cows (FCC) calving in a high P status and fed severely P-deficient diets during lactation were able to mobilise sufficient body P reserves to provide milk for moderate calf growth (viz. 0.6–0.8 kg liveweight (LW)/day for 3 months), but this was associated with rapid cow-LW loss and markedly decreased bone P content. First-calf cows appear to have lesser capacity than mature cows to mobilise body P. FCC fed P-adequate diets during late pregnancy maintained high voluntary intakes and had higher LW and bone P reserves at calving. When fed a P-deficient diet during early lactation, these greater bone P reserves were utilised. Bone P reserves can be replenished by P-adequate diets fed post-weaning. Breeder management that relies more on mobilising body P reserves when P demands are high and on replacing these body P reserves when P demands are lower offers an opportunity to alleviate the effects of dietary P deficiencies during the early wet season in situations where P supplementation is not possible.

Summary This study compared the muscle fiber type distribution in the middle gluteal muscles of mules and horses. Nine mules and ten Quarter Horse-type horses from a commercial pack outfit were sampled with a Bergstrom biopsy needle. The middle gluteal muscle was sampled at a location 10 cm dorsocaudal to the tuber coxae at an angle of 45°. Muscle samples were histochemically analyzed for myosin ATPase (pH 9.5 preincubation) and succinic dehydrogenase activity. Comparing myosin ATPase and succinic dehydrogenase activities, muscle fibers were identified as either type I, type IIA, or type IIB. For each sample, 150 fibers were counted. Mules had more type I fibers (39.7±2.3 vs 20.8±2.2%, P≤.00001) but a fewer % of type IIA fibers (39.3±1.35 vs 47.4±1.37%, P=.0007) and fewer type IIB fibers (21.1±2.3 vs 31.5±2.4%, P=.0062). Mules did have a greater percentage of oxidative fibers, type I plus type IIA, (79.00±2.3 vs 68.2±2.5%, P=.0055). The remaining muscle samples were assayed for activity of citrate synthase and β-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (HOAD). There were no significant differences between mules and horses for either citrate synthase (P=.49) or HOAD (P=.76).

Objective—To determine history; clinical, radiographic, ultrasonographic, and scintigraphic abnormalities; treatment; and outcome in horses with tuber coxae fractures and to describe a useful technique for obtaining a dorsomedial-ventrolateral 50° oblique radiographic view of the tuber coxa of the ilium in standing horses. Design—Retrospective case series. Animals—29 horses with fractures of tuber coxa. Procedures—Data collected from medical records included signalment; history; horse use; severity and duration of lameness; radiographic, ultrasonographic, and scintigraphic findings; treatment; and outcome. Results—All horses had a traumatic event leading to acute, unilateral hind limb lameness. Eighteen horses had a more severe lameness at the walk than at the trot; 22 of 29 horses had an abnormal gait with the hind limbs tracking to 1 side of the forelimbs. Twenty-four of 29 horses had palpable and visual asymmetry between the affected and unaffected tuber coxae. Twenty horses had radiography performed while sedated but standing, and fractures were reliably identified on the dorsomedial-ventrolateral 50° oblique radiographic views. Twenty-seven (27/29 [93%]) horses returned to athletic use. Horses sustaining partial fractures of the caudal aspect of tuber coxae returned to previous use significantly earlier (mean, 3 months), compared with horses with complete tuber coxae fractures (6.5 months). Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Horses with tuber coxae fractures returned to athletic soundness following extended periods of rest. Findings emphasized the need for obtaining a dorsomedial-ventrolateral 50° oblique radiographic view of the tuber coxa of the ilium in horses suspected of sustaining injury to this region.

Objective—To identify scintigraphic abnormalities in the pelvic region of horses examined because of hind limb lameness or poor performance and determine the clinical relevance of areas of abnormal radiopharmaceutical uptake (ARU) in these horses. Design—Retrospective study. Animals—128 horses. Procedure—Medical records were reviewed, and information on signalment, history, admitting complaints, physical examination findings, and results of lameness examinations was recorded. Clinical relevance of areas of ARU was determined by comparison with results of other diagnostic tests. For horses with clinically relevant areas of ARU, follow-up information was obtained through telephone interviews with owners and trainers and analysis of race records. Results—Areas of ARU were identified in the tuber coxae (25 horses), ischiatic tuber (9), hip joint (10), third trochanter (10), ilium (5), sacral tuber region (22), greater trochanter (1), cranial femoral cortex (1), skeletal muscle surrounding the pelvis (34), or multiple areas (11). In 44 horses, areas of ARU were associated with the primary cause of lameness; in 51, areas of ARU were not associated with the primary cause of lameness; and in 33, the primary cause of lameness was not determined. Thirty-six of the 44 horses with clinically relevant areas of ARU were available for follow-up; 15 (42%) had a good outcome. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results suggest that pelvic scintigraphy may be useful in identifying abnormalities in horses with hind limb lameness or poor performance. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004;224: 88–95)

Summary Compressions of the hind limb in a horse trotting at 3.7 m/s were studied by use of high-speed cinematography. It is concluded that distal loading, beginning at the hoof, resulted in a longer impact time and smaller impact forces compared to a theoretical stiff limb. Shortening of the hind limb during the stance occurs from hoof to stifle, while there is an elongation of the distance between the stifle and tuber coxae.

Introduction The study aim was to determine whether there is a link between pelvic misalignment and uneven forelimb hoof size. Previous research suggests that increased loading increases hoof size, but correlation with pelvic misalignment is unknown. Methods 30 healthy, sound, multidiscipline horses, regularly shod/trimmed every 6 weeks, were assessed. Tuber coxae heights were measured in triplicate from the dorsal aspect to ground level, with the horse standing square, using a plumb line and measuring stick. Difference between means indicated value and direction of pelvic misalignment. Using a 300 mm digital vernier calliper, triplicate measurements of hoof width (lateral to medial edge) and hoof length (dorsal to palmar edge) were made of both fore-feet, prior to and after farrier trimming, and were obtained by the farrier (blinded to pelvic measurements) at two shoeing intervals 6 weeks apart. Both methods were tested for reliability and repeatability to ± 1 mm. Statistical analyses included Chi-square, symmetry indices and one-way ANOVA. Results Ventral pelvic rotation was related to greater growth in hoof width on the contralateral forelimb and greater growth in hoof length on the ipsilateral forelimb. There was a significant relationship between uneven hoof width and pelvic rotation direction (P = 0.0002), and a significant relationship between uneven hoof length and pelvic rotation directional (P = 6.1 x 10-7). There was a significant relationship between amount of growth in hoof width (P = 0.0002) and hoof length (P = 4.8 x 10-6) with pelvic misalignment. Conclusions This study provides evidence of a statistically significant relationship between the alignment of the pelvis and growth of horse's front hooves. Further study would be beneficial in enhancing understanding of the chain of compensatory effects on the equine body. Ethical Animal Research Procedures were reviewed by the McTimoney Chiropractic College Ethical Review Committee. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: none. Competing interests: none.

Introduction Evaluating responses of horses to diagnostic analgesia is subject to bias. Pelvic movement symmetry can be measured accurately with inertial sensors, but it is unclear which of the many symmetry measures best reflect changes. It was hypothesised that objective parameters mimicking commonly observed visual parameters used by veterinarians (difference between upward/downward sacral movement and between amplitudes of left and right tuber coxa motion) would show the largest, most consistent responses. Methods 13 horses underwent visual lameness scoring and independent gait assessment with inertial sensors during clinical lameness investigations. Multiple movement symmetry parameters were calculated and changes before/after diagnostic analgesia regressed against change in lameness grade. Confidence intervals of slopes of regression lines were assessed to identify significant changes. Results All parameters showed variation between horses and across lameness grades. Three measures documented a consistent increase in symmetry for each grade of change in lameness score: difference between sacral displacement minima, and upward movement difference and range of motion difference between the tubera coxae. A change in symmetry of 9–13% for each grade of increase in lameness can be expected. Conclusions The three most promising pelvic parameters for consistent quantification of changes due to diagnostic analgesia in the hindlimb of lame horses were identified. Difference in upward movement between left and right tuber coxae is the most sensitive but requires simultaneously focusing on pelvic and limb movements and may therefore be more difficult to assess visually. Showing a similar response to diagnostic analgesia, the difference in movement amplitude between left and right tuber coxae may be more easily perceived since it does not require simultaneous focus on limb movement. Ethical Animal Research The study was approved by the local ethics committee. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: None declared. Competing interests: none.

Objective—To determine the validity of using skin-fixated markers to assess kinematics of the thoracolumbar vertebral column in horses. Animals—5 Dutch Warmblood horses without abnormalities of the vertebral column. Procedure—Kinematics of T6, T10, T13, T17, L1, L3, L5, S3, and both tuber coxae were determined by use of bone-fixated and skin-fixated markers. Threedimensional coordinate data were collected while horses were walking and trotting on a treadmill. Angular motion patterns were calculated and compared on the basis of 2-dimensional analysis of data from skin-fixated markers and 3-dimensional analysis of data from bone-fixated markers. Results—Flexion-extension of thoracolumbar vertebrae and axial rotation of the sacrum were satisfactorily determined at both the walk and trot, using skinfixated markers. Data from skin-fixated markers were accurate for determining lateral bending at the walk in the midthoracic and lower lumbar portion of the vertebral column only. However, at the trot, data from skin-fixated markers were valid for determining lateral bending for all thoracolumbar vertebrae. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Caution should be taken when interpreting data obtained by use of skin-fixated markers on lateral bending motions during the walk in horses. For determination of other rotations at the walk and all rotations at the trot, use of skin-fixated markers allows valid calculations of kinematics of the vertebral column. Understanding to what extent movements of skin-fixated markers reflect true vertebral motion is a compulsory step in developing noninvasive methods for diagnosing abnormalities of the vertebral column and related musculature in horses. (Am J Vet Res 2001;62:301–306)

Morphometric measurements were taken from 41 French trotters of various ages and both sexes. Biopsy location was determined for the dorsal compartment as being one-third of the distance from the tuber sacrale to the tuber coxae and for the ventral compartment as being one-third of the distance from the tuber coxae to the caudal Cd1-Cd2 intervertebral joint. Ten horses were biopsied at these 2 sites at a sampling depth equal to half the total depth of the compartment as measured by ultrasonography. The percentage of slow and fast myosin heavy chain fibres was measured by using an immunoenzymatic method. The depth of the dorsal and ventral compartments of the gluteus medius was significantly greater in males than in females. The depth of the ventral compartment was greater in the case of a straight hip than of a wide hip and was greater in young horses than in older horses. The ventral and the dorsal compartments were composed in the mid-portion of 81.3 and 75.6% of fast myosin heavy chains, respectively. It was concluded that the locations and sampling depths in the gluteus medius could be standardised in French trotters by taking into account anatomical references, sex, age and width of the hip.

Of 13 physical measurements made on live cattle, anal fold fat thickness measured with a hand caliper and fasted liveweight were the most accurate predictors of carcass composition, particularly when used together. Anal fold fat thickness plus fasted liveweight predicted the percentages (mean � s.e. of estimate) of side muscle (59.62 � 1.80), side bone (14.23 � 0.81) and side fat (23.58 � 2.18). Scanoprobe measurements made on live animals were correlated (P

Summary The use of markers placed over the tuber coxae on each side of a horse to aid identification of the relative movement of these structures at the trot, for teaching and research purposes, is described. In each case of hindleg lameness studied, the tuber coxae on the lame side showed a consistent increase in vertical displacement relative to that of the contralateral limb, and a characteristic pattern of movement throughout the stride irrespective of the site or cause of pain.

A study was made of the influence of low and high calcium intakes at two feeding levels (experiments 1 and 2), and of different magnesium intakes (experiment 3) during the dry period, on the cellular resorptive activity in bone of dairy cows at parturition. In experiment 1 (26 cows) the feed intake was 1.12 times maintenance and the calcium intake was either 13.0 g d-1 or 83.5 g d-1. In experiment 2 (33 cows) the feed intake was 1.9 times maintenance and the calcium intake was either 26.4 g d-1 or 87.2 g d-1. In experiment 3 the cows feed intake was 1.4 times maintenance, the calcium intake was 71 to 72 g d-1 and the magnesium intake was either 16.6 g d-1 or 71.0 g d-1. Bone biopsies were taken from the tuber coxae between three and eight hours after parturition. In experiment 1 the cellular resorptive activity in bone from older cows was higher in the cows receiving the low calcium diet. In experiment 2 the differences between the bone resorptive activities of the two groups were small. In experiment 3 the bone resorptive activity was lower in the cows with a deficient supply of magnesium. There were significant relationships in young cows, but not in older cows, between the cellular resorptive activity in bone and the rate of calcium mobilisation measured biochemically. These results suggest that in older dairy cows bone resorption makes only a minor contribution to the total rate of calcium mobilisation at parturition and is therefore of minor importance for the prevention of periparturient hypocalcaemia.

In order to improve the system of preventive diagnosis of osteopathies in cattle a complex examination of health condition of 195 cows from 16 large-capacity farms and of 37 clinical patients waj carried out during the winter season. Diagnostica1 validity of selected clinico-biochemica1 parameters in various forms of metabolic diseases of the cattle skeleton was assessed. The results of this examination show that the determination of Ca and inorganic P concentrations in the blood plasma and urine is of no significance for an early diagnosis of metabolic diseases of cattle skeleton, i. e. in the latent or prodromal stages of the disease. Data obtained by chemical analysis of the tuber coxae biopsy samples taken from cows with various forms of osteopathies due to nutritional deficiencies showed characteristic differences when compared with the controls and were found to be pathognomonic for the processes going on in a skeleton. This finding was verified by histological examination of bioptic osteosamp1es. Evaluation of the results of t. coxae spongiosa chemical analysis proved the usefulness of the ash weight determination in 1 g of fat-free dry matter, of the ash weight in 1 cm 3 and of the Ca/P index in the bone ash .in the diagnosis of various forms of metabolic osteopathies in cows. Histological examination is not necessary from the viewpoint of an early diagnosis of metabolic osteopathies in cows but it may complement the diagnostic conclusion. It can be concluded that by determination of the ash content in 1 g of fat-free dry

Cerny H.: Structural Evaluation of the Cartilage and Bone Tissue in Cattle from the Functional and Morphological Aspects.Acta vet. Brno, 49, 1980: 127-144. The evaluation of morphological structures with regard to changes induced by disorders of mineral metabolism in 8 to 12-month old bulls was performed in 82 cylinders of bone tissue obtained by osteobiopsy of the tuber coxae using a modi­ fied method according to Bartelheimer. The bone cylindres were fixed immediately after sampling. Tissue sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, Azan and according to Goldner. Using various staining metods a number of correlates was obtained the evaluation of which gives a more objective view of the findings thus authorizing the wording of general conclusions. The morphological examination of structures of bone bioptic samples shows that the disorders in mineral metabolism are induced by changes of the morphological structure which are, in young animals, manifested mainly on the apophyseal growth cartilage and in some cases on the trabeculae of the spongious bone. Changes in the cartilage affect mainly its distal edge with a continuous enchondral ossification zone. The zone of the calcified hypertrophic cartilage is elongated and the individual hypertrophic chondrocytes are not arranged into columns but they form disarranged groups of cells. The ground substance of the cartilage is insufficiently mineralized, it is separated in fragments which shift into other ossification zones. In these they can be seen as atypical structures. Demineralization affects also the trabeculae of the spongious bone; on their su­ perficial, endostal regions and, in a smaller extent, around the lacunae and bone channels the formation of osteoid tissue was observed. In the histological prepa­ rations the osteoid tissue is very well differentiated in colour. As the author's findings show, the methods of elaboration used enable - from the general point of view - to show the possibility of intravital diagnostics of struc­ tural changes occurring in cases of disorders of mineral metabolism. Bone biopsy, apophyseal cartilage, spongious bone, mineral metabolism, deminerali­ zation, cattle. The aim of the present paper is to give a survey of the possibilities of evaluating the morpho­ logical structure of the cartilage and bone tissue, the bone tissue obtained intravitally by biopsy from tuber coxae, in relation to metabolic disorders originating due to the lack of osteoplastic elements in feedlot bulls. Another task to be solved is the identification of changes from the point of view of the evaluation of morphological structures of the bone tissue occurring in the individual structures and their comparison with normal conditions. On the basis of knowledge obtained it is the aim to define the zonally occurring changes in the morphological structure which are of paramount importance with regard to further evaluation. When evaluating literature data dealing with problems of the bone as an organ, or describing the individual constituents of bone tissue, it can be said that there are many papers dealing with this

Descriptions of muskox skin are limited despite the fact that its fine undercoat, commonly known as qiviut, is in increasing commercial use. Accordingly, skin biopsies from two bulls, two castrates, and one nonpregnant female were examined histologically at approximately 1-month intervals between 2.2 and 3.2 years of age. The biopsy sites were all 3 cm from the midline: one was in the midcervical region (the mane), another in the middle of the back (the saddle), and the third midway between the tuber coxae and the tuber ischii (the rump). Following surgical preparation, the biopsies were taken under local analgesia using a sharpened 4-mm stainless steel tube mounted in an electric drill. In addition, miscellaneous skin samples were collected from other sources. A regular pattern of follicles similar to that seen in the domestic sheep was hard to discern though primary follicles were readily identifiable by their size and their association with the duct of a sweat gland. For the three skin areas combined, the ratio of secondary to primary follicles (s/p ratio ± SEM) was 37.3 ± 1.8: 1, about twice that seen in the most improved breeds of sheep. The s/p ratio was slightly less on the saddle than on the neck and rump (P 2, which is similar to that seen in the more highly selected sheep. The density on the neck was a little less than that in the saddle and rump (P 2 were present.

Eight calves, weighing 50-150 kg, were given intramuscularly 5 ml of ampicillin (ABPC) aqueous suspensions (200 mg potency/ml) in their right and left gluteal and femoral regions. All calves were sacrificed one hour later to confirm the location of injected drug. The drug was found in a muscle layer when injected with a needle 15 mm long to the following positions, 1. the midpoint between the central position of the gluteal region (CG) and the tuber coxae (M-CTc), 2. the midpoint between CG and the tuber ossis ischii (M-CTo), 3. the central position of M. semimembranaceus in the femoral region (CF). Seven calves, weighing 130-150 kg, were given intramuscularly 5 ml of ABPC suspensions at M-CTo and CF and sacrificed one hour (4 calves) and 3 days (3 calves) later. ABPC diffused along the long axis of the muscle fibers but not to the radial direction. ABPC was detected only in the injected muscle layer even after 3 days indicating that the drug did not diffuse to the neighboring muscles. In the injected muscle layer, concentration of ABPC was remarkably different from part to part. From these results, sampling of the injected muscle for the drug residue study was proposed as follows: 1. isolate about 100 g of muscle just under the stick point marked on the skin considering the direction of drug diffusion, and 2. isolate separately about 200 g of the surrounding muscle to confirm if the sampling is appropriate.

The effects on carcass bruising and muscle properties of the temperament scores of 170 bullocks and 240 cows (Brahman cross and Shorthorn) from 2 properties in northern Queensland were studied. Temperaments were scored by rating their behaviours when the cattle were handled in a crush and pound. High scores indicate poor temperaments. The bullocks and cows were respectively transported 740 and 1155 km to abattoirs and slaughtered 5-7 days after mustering. In both experiments, the estimated bruise trim per carcass increased by approximately 0.3 kg per unit increase in movement score for both temperament tests. Cattle with high temperament scores had more bruising along the back and around the tuber coxae and tuber ischii. Muscle samples from cattle with higher temperament scores tended to have higher mean initial yield and peak force shear values, thus indicating that their meat may have been less tender. Neither ultimate pH nor sarcomere length was related to temperament score.