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Aims: The study is done with the objective of assessing the impact of groundwater irrigation development on cropping intensity and crop productivity in Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu, India. Study Design: Purposive random sampling Place and Duration of Study: Krishnagiri district, Tamil Nadu, India during 2019-20. Methodology: The data on irrigation sources and area under various irrigation sources in Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu and India is subjected to growth analysis using trend studies and CAGR (Compound Annual Growth rate) to study the ground water irrigation development. Whereas, regression analysis was done with the primary data collected from 120 farming households in Krishnagiri on agricultural land use and irrigation to study the impact of groundwater irrigation on cropping intensity and crop productivity. Results: As the net tube wells and other well irrigated area to net sown area (GWA) increases, there has been a corresponding increase in cropping intensity and crop productivity. The rise in percent of net tank and canal irrigated area to net sown area and percent of fertilizer applied area to net sown area have also increased cropping intensity and crop productivity whereas the increase in percent of net rainfed area to net sown area have decreased the cropping intensity and crop productivity. Conclusion: The ground water utilization through tube well construction have increased the cropping intensity and crop productivity.

Consumption of poor quality water causes serious human health hazards. Therefore, it is very crucial to investigate factors influencing the quality of groundwater and its suitability for drinking purpose. In the present study, groundwater quality of the Dhenkanal district of Odisha, India was characterized and the spatial distribution of different water quality parameters were analyzed using the multivariate statistics, entropy theory, and geostatistics techniques. In the present study 112 number of groundwater tube well samples were collected from the study area. The entropy theory revealed that SO42-, Mg+2 and Cl- were the most influencing parameters. A similar observation was also observed based on the correlation coefficient analysis. Groundwater quality index (GWQI) and entropy-weighted water quality index (EWQI) classifications indicated that 78.57 and 43.75% of the collected groundwater samples were categorized under excellent water quality, whereas, the rest of the samples were varying from good to medium drinking water quality. In addition, the result of EWQI classification offers more realistic assessment than that of GWQIs owing to its high precision, simplicity and without application of artificial weight. The correlation coefficient between Ca+2 and HCO3-, Mg+2 and PO4- were significantly high which might be due the presence of CaHCO3 and MgPO4 in the groundwater samples. The GWQI revealed a weak spatial dependence of groundwater quality.

Cryptosporidium is a water-borne zoonotic parasite worldwide, usually found in lakes and rivers contaminated with sewage and animal wastes, causing outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis. In this study, 300 water samples were collected from four designated places of flood-affected district Nowshera consist of different water sources to find out the prevalence of Cryptosporidium via polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium was 30.33% (91/300) with more prevalent 44% in drain water and low 5% in bore/tube well water. The prevalence in open well and tap water was recorded 33% and 20%, respectively. The highest prevalence was recorded in summer (June–September). The result of this study ensures enormous contamination of drinking water that requires appropriate treatment, cleaning and filtration to provide safe drinking water. Preventing water-borne disease and proper treatment of water supplies is essential to public health.

The present study was an attempt to assess the surface and ground water quality for irrigation suitability in Rechna Doab. Irrigation water quality at canals and tube well water were analyzed by physicochemical parameters including pH, Electric Conductivity (EC), important cations such as Calcium (Ca2+) Magnesium (Mg2+), Potassium (K+), Sodium (Na+), important anions such as Chloride (Cl-), Bicarbonate (HCO3-), Sulphate (SO42-), three heavy metals including Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni) and Copper (Cu). Twelve water samples were collected from the main canals (Lower Gogera canal, Jhang branch canal and Rakh branch canal) while fifty water samples were collected from the tube wells. Statistically, data were analyzed by generating correlation coefficients. Canal water quality parameters i.e. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Magnesium Adsorption Ratio (MAR), Sodium Percentage (Na %), Kelly Ratio (KR), Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP), Residual Sodium Bicarbonate (RSBC), Permeability Index (PI) and Potential Salinity (PS) with their mean values 0.16,38.18, 8.03, 0.08, 10.17, 0.08, 28.34 and 0.024 respectively were calculated. Piper and Durov diagrammatic representations provided the suitability of the canal water regarding ionic composition. Results revealed that the status of the canal water was fit for agriculture. On the contrary, the data about Electric Conductivity (EC), Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) and Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) of tube well water (with their maximum values 4.80, 29.65 and 13.60, respectively) was exceeding the FAO limits owing of sodium hazards. Thus, the scenario of groundwater is alarming due to unfit status of tube well water regarding irrigation purposes. Out of total 50 water samples of tube wells, 11 samples were found to be fit. While 39 samples were unfit for crop irrigation. Geo-statistical analysis was performed by using Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) technique created in Arc map.

Safe drinking water is directly linked to good human health. An excessive amount of manganese (Mn) in drinking water supplies causes people show symptoms of neurotoxicity. In this study, the level of Mn in potable water sourced from tube wells located in 9 (nine) districts of Bangladesh was monitored. In total 170 (one hundred and seventy) water samples were collected and Mn was quantified by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The levels of Mn found in the tube well water samples of Sirajganj, Meherpur, Chuadanga, Jhenaidah, Magura, Faridpur, Jashore, Satkhira, and Khulna were 0.37–1.86, 0.10–4.11, 0.30–0.76, 0.26–0.94, 0.01–0.18, 0.21–1.78, 0.08–1.23, 0.05–0.27 and 0.01–2.11 mg/L, respectively. Results revealed that Mn level was beyond the highest contaminated levels of 0.1 mg/L and 0.4 mg/L, which are recommended by Bangladesh Drinking Standard (BDS) and World Health Organization (WHO), respectively. The maximum Mn contaminated level reached up to 4.11 mg/L (mean: 0.53 mg/L). The Mn level in tube well water exceeded 51.1% and 75.9% set by the recommended value of WHO and BDS, respectively. Furthermore, the calculated hazard quotient (HQ) value for Mn was observed to be greater than unity, indicating both children and adults risked potential non-carcinogenic health issues. The water supply authorities should take steps to provide Mn-free drinking water for communities.

Pakistan is an agricultural and developing country. The use of wastewater to irrigate agricultural farms is increasing day by day due to water shortage in the country. This study assessed the Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) of soils of agricultural farms (six sites) being irrigated with industrial effluents, urban sewage, canal and tube-well water in suburb of Multan city, Pakistan. Surface soil samples (n = 30) from the six sites were analyzed for cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb) by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Samples of wastewater/water (n = 30) used for irrigation from respective sites were analyzed for same metals for statistical analysis. Mean contents (mg/kg) of Cd (5.65), Cr (153.1) and Pb (63.95) in soil under industrial effluents exceeded the threshold limits. The ecological risk factor 5650 > 320 for Cd was the highest and contributed 91-98.6% in raising the ecological risk. Cd, Cr, Cu and Pb were the prominent contaminants in soil across all sites. Soil under industrial effluents showed very high ecological risk (PERI 5730>600) and soils under urban wastewater exhibited moderate risk (PERI 153.5–294) and soils under tube well and canal water indicated low risk (PERI 138–149.7

Ground water samples collected from 40 villages of Sahlawas Block of District Jhajjar, Haryana were analysed for the fluoride and other chemical characteristics. A total number of 160 samples were collected from hand pumps, tube well, well and Govt. supply water of different villages. It is observed that 32. 67% samples of ground water contain fluoride upto 1.0 mg/L, 26% are within 1.5 mg/L and 41.33% are above 1.5 mg/L. Consumption of excessive fluoride in drinking water causes dental fluorosis and physiological deformities. An attempt was also made to survey the school children for dental fluorosis. Both prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis were found to be increased with increasing of fluoride concentration. A systematic calculation of the correlation coefficients has also been carried out between different physico-chemical parameters.

The effect of treated spent wash on channel bed and groundwater qualities was investigated during 2014-15 at Unicol distillery as study area in district Mirpurkhas. For this purpose, samples of spent wash, soil/water were collected and determined for parameters related to physical and chemical properties. The impact of spent wash on channel bed and on the adjacent soils at different distances showed that highest soil EC (18.40 dS m-1) and TDS (11776 ppm) were determined for spent wash channel bed at surface soil and EC decreased with increasing distance from channel bed at sub-surface layers; while the highest overall soil pH (7.43) was observed at 450m distance at 30-45 cm soil depth. The highest total N (0.16%) and available K (0.53%) was observed at channel bed and at surface soil with highest available P (4.80%) at channel bed in sub-surface (15-30 cm) soil. The groundwater samples obtained from tube well and hand pump were also analysed for physical and chemical properties and compared with the spent wash from channel bed. The lower Na (1578.7 ppm) was determined in hand pump water samples than tube well water (2588.3 ppm); while highest (7050 ppm) in spent wash. The HCO3 was lower in tube well water (247.00 ppm) than hand pump water (430 ppm); and highest (6166.70 ppm) in spent wash. The Chloride (Cl) content was lower (2117 ppm) in hand pump water samples than tube well water (5259 ppm); and highest in spent wash (14097 ppm). The groundwater EC was lower (11.077 dS m-1) hand pump water than tube well water (17.262 dS m-1) and highest (47.090 dS m-1) in spent wash. Similarly, the lower magnesium (465.3 ppm) was determined in hand pump water samples than tube well water (553.3 ppm) and exceptionally high (1300.7 ppm) in spent wash. The SAR of hand pump water samples was lower (11.583) than tube well water (20.390) and outstandingly high (35.693) for spent wash. In case of calcium content, it was lower in tube well water (359.33 ppm) than hand pump water (593.33 ppm) and exceptionally higher in spent wash (764.33 ppm). It was concluded that soil EC and TDS were lower at farther locations from spent wash channel bed at sub-soils. The surface soil contained higher organic matter; no effect of spent wash on soil organic matter was recorded. The soil pH was relatively higher at spent wash channel bed and its adverse effects were noted upto 300-meter distance. Total N was slightly (P>0.05) higher at channel bed than distant locations, while phosphorus was significantly higher at spent wash channel bed. The available potassium was also significantly influenced by the spent wash; and P was higher at channel bed, and decreased at the farther locations adjacent to the channel bed. The EC level, Na, HCO3, Cl, Mg and Ca contents as well as SAR for spent wash samples were manifold higher than the tube well and hand pump water samples.

Sustainable measure to harmless drinking water attains a worldwide threat in the developing countries still consume water from untreated sources. Water sources were taken throughout the Malappuram Dist from open well, bore well, tube well, pond and river water samples. Nowadays, the chemical substance, ammonia is one of the important pollutants found in drinking water sources. The present study was also focused on the quantity of ammonia contamination in the various drinking water sources in Malappuram district, Kerala and also investigated the removal of ammonia from different samples through adsorption process with different charcoal materials. The experimental observations were indicated that the rate of ammonia adsorption on charcoal carbon increases with the increase of concentration in the solution. Among the studied charcoals, the rice husk charcoal imparted significant removal of ammonia as compared to others due to their surface chemical constituents (interacts with ammonia for effective removal).

The focus of the present study was to assess the quality of different drinking water sources, impacts of poor water quality on human health, and to apportion pollution source(s) of the district Bajaur, Pakistan. Drinking water samples (n = 331) were randomly collected from springs, hand pumps, open wells, and tube wells and analyzed for physicochemical parameters including toxic elements, and bacteriological contamination (i.e., Escherichia coli). Furthermore, a questionnaire survey was conducted to record the cases of waterborne diseases in the study area. The results showed that total suspended solids and bacteriological contamination exceeded the permissible limits of the WHO in all four of the water sources. Among the potentially toxic elements, Cd, Pb, and Mn were above the permissible limits of the WHO in some samples. The hazard index for spring water was found to exceed the toxicity level (i.e., HI > 1) set by US EPA for both adults and children, while the sources from hand pumps, open wells, and tube wells were within the safe limit. The order for the overall safety level for water quality in the study area was tube wells > open wells > hand pumps > springs. The pollution source apportionment statistics revealed that both geogenic and anthropogenic activities are the sources of drinking water contamination. The results of the questionnaire survey indicated that reports of waterborne diseases were highest in respondents who took their drinking water from springs, whereas reports of diseases were moderate in respondents taking their water from open wells and hand pumps and lowest in respondents taking their water from tube wells. Based on the findings of the study, the tube well source of water is recommended for drinking water purposes.

Agriculture is the back bone of Pakistan’s economy of Pakistan with 21 % contribution to GDP and providing livelihood to about 45 % of the total labor force of the country. The industry of Pakistan is mainly agro based (Economic survey of Pakistan, 2009-10). Due to change in climate and thereby extended drought, surface water resources of the country had reduced by 70% in 2003, compared with normal years (Kahlown et al., 2003). Unfortunately, canal water is not sufficient to meet requirements of soil and crop under intensive cropping system. A water quality study has shown that out of 560,000 tube wells in Indus Basin, about 70% are pumping sodic water which in turn is affecting the soil health and crop yield (Kahlown et al., 2003).The ground waters of different areas and depths have different types of salts which deteriorate the soil accordingly (Masood and Gohre, 2000). It is also reported that 73.38% (681) of the 922 water samples analyzed by the soil and water laboratory Vehari during the year 2006-07, were unfit for irrigation purpose, while 11.93% (110) were marginally fit and only14.21 (131) were found fit for irrigation purpose (Ashraf et al., 2008). According to the estimates, discharge of 50-60 % of the existing wells was brackish in nature (Ashraf et al., 2009) and still more formidable figures of Lahore district declaring that groundwater of 76.6% villages of the district was detrimental for crops and soil health (Ali et al., 2009).According to Shakir et al. (2002), 64 water samples were collected from new tube well bores from various locations of district Kasur to check the quality of under-groundwater for irrigation purpose. The results show that electrical conductivity of the samples varied from 524 to 5700 μS cm-1, sodium adsorption ration of the samples ranged from 0.49 to 26.00, while residual sodium carbonate ranged from 0.00 to 17.00 meL-1. Out of 64 samples, 26 samples were fit, 8 marginally fit and 30 unfit for irrigation.The successful crop production on sustainable basis, mainly depends on the quality of groundwater. The common characteristics considered are electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption rations (SAR) and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) (Idris and Shafiq, 1999). The concentration and composition of dissolved constituents in water determine its quality for irrigation use. It is difficult to define the critical limits of EC, RSC and SAR because the effect of different qualities of water of soil health and crop yield is also governed by the type of soil, climate and management practices (Singh et al., 1992).Gravity of the situation of groundwater of the majority districts of Pakistan implies that something will have to be done without further loss of time to prevent the rapid conversion of productive fertile lands of Pakistan into unproductive barren lands. Besides, making investment on creating awareness among farming community about bio-saline technology/ saline agriculture by the private and public sectors, a watchful eye on the quality and quantity of ground water of every district of Pakistan by all the stakeholders and timely tackling the detrimental impact of brackish groundwater by using the available technology to the possible extent is imperative.

The biggest responsibility of agriculture department is to produce food and cloth for huge population using the resource getting limited day by day. Water scarcity is most threatening among these limiting factors. New techniques are being developed day by day to increase the water use efficiency on farm level. Application of water directly in the plant root zone could save the water and curtail the losses pertinent to leach down and evaporation. Irrigation to soil does not control the climate variables and precipitation cannot be substituted to irrigation. Sprinkler irrigation system helps efficient utilization of water by using only when needed. This way not only losses made by leaching and evaporation are controlled but micro climate of the field is also ameliorated. Canals and tube well water is conventionally given to crop through flood irrigation. These fields are in direct threat of evaporation and leaching resulting in excess water losses and damaging the soil quality. The study was designed taking cotton as experimental crop to calculate comparisons in plant growth parameters and yields along with water saving ability of different irrigation system. Maximum income of Rs. 99403 was obtained from sprinkler irrigation while high yield of 990kg and 753 m3 in comparison to T4, 736 m3 in comparison to T3 and 113 m3in comparison to T2 was saved under drip irrigation system. The farmers are thus recommended to adopt sprinkler and drip irrigation system in order to get enhanced yields on sustainable bases and to curtail the water losses.

Existing efforts to ensure safe water access in coastal Bangladesh are challenged by increasing freshwater salinity. This research explored/explores safe water consumption choices in coastal Bangladesh, which data are scarce to date, using a mixed-methods approach. In 2014, a cross-sectional survey was conducted in southwestern coastal Bangladesh (n=261) and data was generated on water supply and consumption. Data collection also involved 29 in-depth interviews of household care givers and focus group discussions were performed with three community groups. Descriptive statistics were applied to analyse quantitative data and thematic analysis was used for qualitative data. The survey showed that 60% of the study population used tube well water while 40% used pond water for drinking. It was observed that for cooking purposes, the use of pond water was slightly higher than the tube well water. Only 13% of the respondents mentioned that their drinking water tasted salty whereas 6% of the respondents reported health problem (diarrhoea, dysentery, gastric issues and skin problems) after using these water sources. The qualitative data reveals that water available for drinking and cooking is causing a serious threat to this coastal community, particularly during the dry season. In-depth assessments indicated that drinking water choices were less driven by concerns for health than practical issues such as travel distance and time taken and taste. The palatability of water was an important determinant of choice for drinking and other domestic uses. Furthermore, the utility of alternative options for safe drinking water is driven by beliefs and traditions and source maintenance. Given the increasing salinisation of freshwaters in many low-lying countries and likely exacerbation related to climate change-induced sea level rise, therefore, promotion of low saline drinking water along with salt reducing interventions consider that community beliefs and practices must be a made priority.

Valuation of water quality index (WQI) is one of the simplest, easily understandable, and efficacious techniques to evaluate the quality and suitability of water for drinking as well as other purposes. This research was aimed to investigate the drinking water quality of tube wells from different areas in Khulna City, Bangladesh, by developing the WQI. Water samples from 59 tube wells were collected from different locations during the pre-monsoon time. pH, electric conductivity (EC), dissolve oxygen (DO), total dissolved solid (TDS), chloride (Cl−), nitrate (NO3−), and total hardness of the collected water samples were analyzed for the calculation of WQI. The mean value for pH, EC, DO, TDS, Cl−1, NO3−, and total hardness was 7.30, 1650 μS/cm, 1.60 mg/l, 1188.7 mg/l, 414.6 mg/l, 0.029 mg/l, and 52.03 mg/l, respectively. The calculated WQI values for individual places were distributed spatially through mapping by using ArcGIS software. Based on the WQI values, the drinking water was categorized into excellent, good, poor, very poor, and unfit for drinking purposes. The calculated WQI values ranged from 40.11 to 454.37 with an average value of 108.94. Among all the groundwater samples, 11.86% were excellent, 54.24% were good, 23.73% were poor, 1.69% were very poor, and 8.47% were unfit for drinking purpose based on WQI. The results showed that the groundwater quality of most of the studied areas of Khulna city could be considered safe and suitable for drinking barring the elevated EC and chloride content in some areas. Since Khulna city is situated in the southwestern part of Bangladesh and gradually approaches toward the base level of the Bay of Bengal which might be the source of salt concentration in the groundwater of Khulna city, Bangladesh.

A study was conducted to investigate fish species availability and socio-economic conditions offishermen of the Bergobindopur baor of Jashore district, Bangladesh. Data were collected from 30 fishermenof the baor through questionnaire interviews and focus group discussion. Various indigenous fish like rui,punti, tengra, shol, ayre, chital, mohashol and a few exotic fish like tilapia, silver carp, common carp, andgrass carp are available in Bergobindopur baor. Prices of fishes varied from species to species but high pricedfish were mohashol, chital, and shol. Kochal jal, net jal, and hela jal are used for fishing. A large portion offishermen (70%) were Hindu, almost all were male (96%) , married (91%) and middle aged (55%). Bothjoint and nuclear families were found among the fishermen. Yearly income of the maximum fishermen wasbetween Tk. 31000 and Tk. 50000. Non-constructed houses were more abundant (88%) and majority (61%)had electricity facilities. All fishermen used tube well water, sanitary latrines and took allopathic (80%)treatment which indicated positive signs for health condition. Through fishing, their socio-economic conditionhad improved. About 60% fishers had bank accounts and all sent their children to school as well as farmedcattle. However, the fishers faced some problems like lack of sufficient boats and gears, transportationproblems, inadequate training facilities, lack of financial supports, lack of awareness etc. Therefore, moreinstitutional, organizational, technical and credit supports are required to minimize their difficulties andensure their socio-economic betterment and sustainable livelihoods

Visible in the extant and deep depredations that rural India is experiencing are forms of malevolence. As agendas to promote nature conservation and agricultural productivity gain ground, these ico...

Pakistan is one of the prominent countries in the context of growing cotton in the world. Better cotton production paves the way towards thriving textile industry in Pakistan which means a lot to people for many reasons including employment and income generation. However, the energy crises have been putting drastic impacts both on the cotton growers as well as on the textile industry sometime creating a huge supply and demand gap. This study aimed at measuring the futuristic preferred perspectives of the growers in the context of various available energy sources in order to confront energy shortage. Fifty specialized cotton growers were purposively selected from Multan district of the Punjab (Pakistan) in order to collect data and consolidate their future preferences. The collected data were analyzed with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Moreover, the qualitative data were analyzed through content analysis technique. Findings indicated that the hydro and solar energy were in preference with a view of electricity while gas(natural) for the heat purposes. This study urged that for helping the farmers to run the tube well to meet irrigation needs, the electricity should be provided on low rates. On the real grounds, concerted efforts are required to pave the way (especially) for the cotton growers to harness the benefits of solar energy for various pursuits for better agriculture especially for running tube well.

This study was aimed to evaluate the metals concentration in agricultural soil and vegetables irrigated by different irrigation sources. For this purpose agricultural soil and eight vegetables used for commercial consumption were collected from waste-water and tube-well water irrigated sites of Lahore district. Metals i.e. iron (Fe), sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) were analyzed via flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Concentration of metals in soil and vegetables irrigated by wastewater was higher considerably as compared to the soil and vegetables irrigated by tube well water. Among heavy metals concentration in vegetables irrigated by waste-water, trend was appeared as K > Na > Ca > Mg > Fe, while vegetables cultivated by tube-well water, trend was appeared as K > Ca > Na > Mg > Fe. Similarly, leafy vegetables accumulated higher heavy metals levels as compared to non-leafy vegetables. Keywords: Metals, Vegetables, Wastewater, Agricultural soil, Health risks

Bangladesh is a riverine country where arsenic bearing silt and sediments coming from Himalayas via different rivers (the Padma, Jamuna and Meghna) gets deposited in the groundwater aquifers at different locations of Bangladesh. Groundwater is the most dependent form of sources for drinking in this area, unfortunately arsenic is of extensive amount (more than 50 ppb) found in this groundwater. Fourteen water samples from different depth of tube well, 8 soil samples from topsoil (15 cm) and subsurface (30 cm) and 7 different types of food materials were collected from Alampur Village, Amjhupi Union at Megerpur district. Water samples are preserved by HNO‌3 for maintaining pH (2-3).Food and food materials were digested with HNO3- H2SO4 in order to determine the arsenic by Ag-DDTC, UV-visible method. The arsenic of tubewell water was beyond the Bangladesh acceptable limit and arsenic in food materials were with the limit of Australian food hygiene limit (1 mg /kg). Concentration of arsenic in topsoil (15 cm) was higher than arsenic in the subsurface (30 cm). The values of arsenic in food materials was lower, which indicated that arsenic from tubewell water is adsorbed in soil but not to propagate food materials. It might be due to the type of soil.

In present study, the quality of groundwater for irrigation in Bhopalgarh tehsil of Jodhpur district, Rajasthan was examined. Bhopalgarh tehsil bounded by Nagaur district to the north and east, Pipar city tehsil to the south, Jodhpur tehsil to the southwest and Bawadi tehsil to the west. Georeferenced sixty water samples of tube well/open well were collected from different villages where the waters are being used for irrigation for last few years. The water samples were analyzed for various chemical properties like EC, pH, major cations: Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and anions: CO32-, HCO3-, Cl- and SO42-. Subsequently, residual sodium carbonate (RSC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), adjusted SAR, potential salinity and Mg/Ca ratio were also calculated. The quality of irrigation water was categorized on the basis of salinity (EC), sodicity (SAR) and alkalinity (RSC) into 4 salinity (C-1 to C-4) classes, 4 sodicity (S-0 to S-3) classes and 3 alkalinity (A-1 to A-3) classes, respectively. Besides this, the quality of irrigation water was also categorized on the basis of the EC, SAR and RSC into six classes viz. good, High-SAR saline, marginally saline, marginally alkali, alkali and highly alkali. The results showed that 21.66 percent water samples were good, 15 percent water samples were marginally saline, 48.33 percent water samples were High-SAR saline, 8.33 percent water samples were marginally alkali, 3.33 percent water samples were alkali and 3.33 percent water samples were highly alkali in nature and it is found that most of the irrigation water came under high-SAR saline category.

Present study assessed the pathogenic prevalence in municipal water from 10 supply point and deep tube-well water from 10 deep tube-well point delivered across the Kashipur zone of Narayanganj city, Bangladesh along with their drug resistant pattern through conventional, biochemical and disk diffusion methods. The physico-chemical properties of the deep tube-well water were in satisfactory level, only the samples from location 1, 3, 5 and 9 were exceed the marginal limit for dissolved oxygen however most of the samples of supplied water cross the marginal limit of all parameter (dissolved oxygen ,temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolve solid and turbidity). Pathogenic bacteria including Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus spp. were found in both supplied water and sewerage authority water (102–106 cfu/ml) and deep tube-well water (102–104 cfu/ml). Additionally, fecal coliforms, Klebsiella spp., Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Vibrio spp. and Pseudomonas spp. was monitored only among the supplied water. Both of the samples were found to be contaminated with heterotrophic bacteria up to 108 cfu/ml. Most of the bacteria were found to be resistant against more than one drug. Hence, the municipal water of the study area was microbiologically unsafe. The propagation of drug resistant strains was assumed to escalate the public health threat. A survey on public opinions were also conducted to know their daily life style and their concern on water treatment and diseases outbreaks caused by contaminated water.

The present study was carried out in two district of Western Uttar Pradesh i.e. Meerut and Hapur to know the socio-economic profile of cabbage growers and correlation coefficients of socio-economic status with the knowledge and adoption. This study was done based on 200 respondents of different categories and data were collected through personal interview method. The study revealed that the majority of cabbage growers (59.00 %) were belonged to middle age group, (54.50 %) belonged to Other Backward Caste, (22.50 and 22.50 %) respectively were having education up to 10th passed and intermediate level, (90.00 %) were married, (73.50 %) belonging to joint family system, (64.00 %) were having 5 to 8 members in family, (93.00 %) were having Pucca house, (28.00 %) respondents were having membership of only one social organizations, (39.50 %) were having 1 to 2 ha of land, (47.00 %) were using own electric tube well/diesel engine for irrigation, (99.00 %) were having toilets, (94.50 %) were having Gas stove/Gas cylinder for food making, (85.50%) were having Motorcycle as transportation facility, (47.00 %) were having tractor-trolly and major source of information was found Neighbors'/ Relative. The most of the respondents earning income between ₹ 1,00,001-2,00,000/- per annum and the majority of the respondents (42.50 %) were having medium level of socio-economic status in their society. The variable “Education” was found highly significant correlated with knowledge level and moderate significant correlated with adoption level.

Rotavirus, a diarrheal pathogen spread via fecal-oral transmission, is typically characterized by a winter incidence peak in most countries. Unlike for cholera and other waterborne infections, the role of sanitation and socioeconomic factors on the spatial variation of rotavirus seasonality remains unclear. In the current study, we analyzed their association with rotavirus seasonality, specifically the odds of monsoon cases, across 46 locations from 2001 to 2012 in Dhaka. Drinking water from tube wells, compared to other sources, has a clear protective effect against cases during the monsoon, when flooding and water contamination are more likely. This finding supports a significant environmental component of transmission., We examined the association of sanitation and socioeconomic factors with rotavirus seasonality and found that drinking water from tube wells, which are less likely to be contaminated, has a protective effect against rotavirus during the monsoon season in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

This study explored rice farmers’ on-farm autonomous adaptation (OFAA) strategies to climate change and evaluated their impact on rice yield and total crop returns. The study used empirical data of 480 farmers collected from the major rice-growing zone of Punjab province, a region highly vulnerable to climate variability in Pakistan. We employed the Propensity Score Matching (PSM) technique to estimate the impact of OFAA strategies on crop outcomes and used a probit model to investigate the determinants of farmers’ adaptation decisions. Findings show that farmers have adopted various OFAA practices such as irrigation water management, changing cultivation dates, and fertilizer management to lessen the adverse effects of climate change. The probit model results indicated farmers’ land ownership, tube well ownership, off-farm income, credit use, and access to climate information as the major determinants of farmers’ adaptation decisions. The PSM results showed that farmers who adopted at least one OFAA practice attained 340 kg/hectare more rice yield, equivalent to US$74, compared to those who did not adopt any adaptation measure. We further found that farmers who employed multiple adaptation strategies have attained higher profits compared to those implementing a few measures. These findings imply that OFAA strategies are important in minimizing the adverse impacts of climate change and variability on crops leading to improved food production and farmers' livelihood. This study further highlights the crucial role of farmers’ education, availability of irrigation facilities, credit, and climate information for an improved farm-level adaptation.

Nitrate as an important water pollutant, causing eutrophication was analyzed in Pakistan at different water sources (hand pump (HP), bore hole (BH) and tube well (TW)) to assess the contamination level caused by NO3-. NO3- concentrations in the HP water samples were 31 mg L-1 to 59 mg L-1, in BH 20 mg L-1 to 79 mg L-1 while in TW water samples it was between 29 to 55 mg L-1. The association of NO3- with other selected parameter in groundwater can be determined by using statistical approaches. Different physicochemical parameters (pH, electrical conductivity (EC), temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO)) were studied in groundwater samples of the research district. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) for groundwater characteristics were calculated. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) was used to categorize samples based on their groundwater quality similarities and to find links between groundwater quality factors. The key relationship of the groundwater for HP samples on EC and TDS (r = 1) had a great correlation, while all other parameters correlations were lower (r = 0.40), BH's parameters on WT and WSD (r = 0.57), WT and pH (r = 0.57), EC and DO (r = 0.50), DO and TDS (0.50), EC and TDS (r = 1) had a quite high correlation, while all other parameters correlations were less than (r = 0.40), on the other hand, tube well parameters on TDS and EC (r = 1) had a perfect correlation, DO and pH (r = 0.75) parameters correlations were less than (r = 0.40).

Good-quality water and food are the basic needs of humans, plants, and animals. Polluted groundwater and soil directly and indirectly affect organisms, which is the main environmental concern. In the current study, standard protocols of atomic absorption spectrometry were adopted for the investigation of selected metals (lead, chromium, and iron) in the collected groundwater and soil samples. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) applied to groundwater and soil samples shows a positive perfect correlation among water parameters (conductivity and total dissolved solids) in all three sources. In the hand pump samples between water table (WT) and water source depth (WSD), Pearson correlation coefficient (r) value was found (r = 0.87) while between EC and TDS, it was r = 1. Similarly, in the bore hole samples between WT and WSD (r = 0.66), EC and TDS (r = 1), EC and Cr (r = 0.70), and TDS and Cr (r = 0.70), which showed weaker correlation. In the tube well samples, correlation between EC and TDS was high (r = 1). The correlation coefficient (r) values of the soil parameters in the hand pump (soil) samples between Fe and Cr (r = 0.86), in bore hole samples between Fe and Cr (r = 0.77), in tube well samples between Fe and Cr (r = 0.69), while all the other parameter correlations were found lower (r = 0.60). Between electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids, high relation has been observed between them (r = 1). Overall, results showed that in most of the studied samples, contents of the target metals were found above the allowable limit set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).

Curing of bricks during manufacturing process and construction work has a significant impact on the strength, durability and wear resistance of concrete. If the concrete is not properly and adequately cured, it will fail to satisfy the purpose for which it is designed. Minimum 12–24 days curing is required for bricks during the manufacturing process and minimum 7 days water supply is required for masonry wall and concrete. Bricks require a lot of water and time for curing. Maximum use of water is an environmental issue and supply of water by laborers from tube wells to construction sites has an adverse impact on their health. In the present work we have developed two methods for curing bricks and concrete. First method will help for curing of bricks and concrete during the manufacturing process without the requirement of a single drop of water and the second method will help for better supply of water to constructional workplaces with minimum effort.

This chapter looks at the challenges and opportunities for saline agriculture in coastal Bangladesh. The present study has examined the spatial patterns of soil salinization, identified the drivers of salinity intrusion, determined the impacts on agricultural systems, and identified opportunities for saline agriculture in coastal districts. Cropland of southwest and central coastal areas is more vulnerable to saline stress, and about 82% of cropland is in the areas of severe salinity stress. Salinity has significant negative impacts on agricultural systems, fisheries resources, livestock products, and production in coastal study districts. Our study found that several opportunities exist to aid communities and ecosystems. These include locally led coping strategies – elevating agricultural land, irrigation by tube well, use more organic fertilizers, and growth of salt-tolerant high-yield variety (HYV) rice, vegetables (e.g., cucurbits, pumpkins, etc.), and oilseed crops (e.g., sunflower, mustard, etc.). Our study suggests the need for the rapid deployment of an integrated socio-agriculture saline management approach through action research, innovation, and institutionalization.

A liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) method was validated as per SANTE/12682/2019 guidelines for gas chromatography–mass spectrometric (GC–MS) determination of thirty-six multiclass pesticides in environmental waters. Seasonal (summer, monsoon, and winter) effects on the magnitude of pesticide residues in environmental water (river, pond, and tube well) of six different urban areas of Nadia and North 24 Parganas districts (New alluvial zone, Eastern India) was monitored for subsequent risk assessment. Total 288 water samples (96 each of river, pond, and tube-well) irrespective of locations and seasons were monitored for multiclass multi pesticide residues during the experiment. Each sample (750 mL) was extracted with ethyl acetate/dichloromethane (8:2) liquid–liquid partitioning and filtration (0.22 μm nylon filter paper) and total residue was reconstituted in acetone (1 mL) for GC–MS analysis with developed and validated method resulting satisfactory recovery percentages (77.84–118.15%). The maximum no. of organochlorine (OC) and organophosphorus (OP) pesticide residues were dominated in river and pond water irrespective of seasons and monitoring sites. About 74% of river water samples were found to be contaminated with concerned pesticides in variable magnitudes. Monsoon (July to October) season was highly alarming with the highest presence of total pesticide residues in different types of environmental waters. Risk quotient (RQ) [acute and chronic] was also evaluated in pond and river water as sometimes used for drinking purposes. RQ value (5900) of total endosulfan indicates the highest risk of chronic toxicity to river fishes. Seven water samples from tube-wells were also monitored and found to be contaminated with butachlor and chlorpyriphos in non-significant amounts (