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Background and Purpose— Abnormal vascular remodeling triggered by hemodynamic stresses and inflammation is believed to be a key process in the pathophysiology of intracranial aneurysms. Numerous studies have shown infiltration of inflammatory cells, especially macrophages, into intracranial aneurysmal walls in humans. Using a mouse model of intracranial aneurysms, we tested whether macrophages play critical roles in the formation of intracranial aneurysms. Methods— Intracranial aneurysms were induced in adult male mice using a combination of a single injection of elastase into the cerebrospinal fluid and angiotensin II-induced hypertension. Aneurysm formation was assessed 3 weeks later. Roles of macrophages were assessed using clodronate liposome-induced macrophage depletion. In addition, the incidence of aneurysms was assessed in mice lacking monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (CCL2) and mice lacking matrix metalloproteinase-12 (macrophage elastase). Results— Intracranial aneurysms in this model showed leukocyte infiltration into the aneurysmal wall, the majority of the leukocytes being macrophages. Mice with macrophage depletion had a significantly reduced incidence of aneurysms compared with control mice (1 of 10 versus 6 of 10; P P Conclusions— These data suggest critical roles of macrophages and proper macrophage functions in the formation of intracranial aneurysms in this model.

Aortic aneurysms are common among the elderly population. A large majority of aortic aneurysms are located at two distinct aneurysm-prone regions, the abdominal aorta and thoracic aorta involving the ascending aorta. In this study, we combined two factors that are associated with human aortic aneurysms, hypertension and degeneration of elastic lamina, to induce an aortic aneurysm in mice. Roles of hemodynamic conditions in the formation of aortic aneurysms were assessed using two different methods for inducing hypertension and antihypertensive agents. In 9-week–old C57BL/6J male mice, hypertension was induced by angiotensin II or deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt hypertension; degeneration of elastic lamina was induced by infusion of β-aminopropionitrile, a lysyl oxidase inhibitor. Irrespective of the methods for inducing hypertension, mice developed thoracic and abdominal aortic aneurysms (38% to 50% and 30 to 49%, respectively). Aneurysms were found at the two aneurysm-prone regions with site-specific morphological and histological characteristics. Treatment with an antihypertensive agent, amlodipine, normalized blood pressure and dramatically reduced aneurysm formation in the mice that received angiotensin II and β-aminopropionitrile. However, treatment with captopril, an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, did not affect blood pressure or the incidence of aortic aneurysms in the mice that received deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt and β-aminopropionitrile. In summary, we have shown that a combination of hypertension and pharmacologically induced degeneration of elastic laminas can induce both thoracic and abdominal aortic aneurysms with site-specific characteristics. The aneurysm formation in this model depended on hypertension but not on direct effects of angiotensin II to the vascular wall.

Mechanisms of formation and growth of intracranial aneurysms are poorly understood. To investigate the pathophysiology of intracranial aneurysms, an animal model of intracranial aneurysm yielding a high incidence of large aneurysm formation within a short incubation period is needed. We combined two well-known clinical factors associated with human intracranial aneurysms, hypertension and the degeneration of elastic lamina, to induce intracranial aneurysm formation in mice. Roles of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in this model were investigated using doxycycline, a broad-spectrum MMP inhibitor, and MMP knockout mice. Hypertension was induced by continuous infusion of angiotensin II for 2 weeks. The disruption of elastic lamina was achieved by a single stereotaxic injection of elastase into the cerebrospinal fluid at the right basal cistern. A total of 77% of the mice that received 35 milliunits of elastase and 1000 ng/kg per minute of angiotensin II developed intracranial aneurysms in 2 weeks. There were dose-dependent effects of elastase and angiotensin II on the incidence of aneurysms. Histologically, intracranial aneurysms observed in this model closely resembled human intracranial aneurysms. Doxycycline, a broad-spectrum MMP inhibitor, reduced the incidence of aneurysm to 10%. MMP-9 knockout mice, but not MMP-2 knockout mice, had reduced the incidence of intracranial aneurysms. In summary, a stereotaxic injection of elastase into the basal cistern in hypertensive mice resulted in intracranial aneurysms that closely resembled human intracranial aneurysms. The intracranial aneurysm formation in this model appeared to depend on MMP activation.

Sustained hemodynamic stresses, especially high blood flow, result in flow-induced outward vascular remodeling. Our previous study showed that macrophage depletion reduced flow-induced outward remodeling of the rat common carotid artery, indicating that macrophages are critical in flow-induced outward vascular remodeling. Macrophage is known to release proteinases, including matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Degradation and loosening of extracellular matrix by MMPs may facilitate vascular remodeling. Therefore, we assessed the functions of MMPs in flow-induced outward vascular remodeling by using the flow-augmented common carotid artery model in mice. We validated that ligation of the left common carotid artery increased blood flow and luminal diameter of the right common carotid artery without significant change in blood pressure of mice. To assess the functions of MMPs in flow-induced outward vascular remodeling, we used doxycycline (broad-spectrum MMP inhibitor), SB-3CT (selective MMP inhibitor), MMP-9 knockout mice, and MMP-12 knockout mice. Although there was only a trend for doxycycline treatment to reduce flow-induced outward vascular remodeling, SB-3CT treatment significantly reduced flow-induced outward vascular remodeling. In addition, flow-induced outward vascular remodeling was significantly reduced in MMP-9 knockout mice, but not in MMP-12 knockout mice. These data revealed that MMPs, especially MMP-9, are critical in flow-induced outward vascular remodeling.

Most High-Speed railway systems around the world used single-phase voltage source as power supply for trains, therefore, adopted some special transformers to convert 3-phase source to single phases. The differential relays used for this situation most be restudied for understanding their operation changes in a high harmonic content environment. This research aims at the study of effects of harmonics to the differential protective differential relays for special transformers. The CA (Westinghouse) type differential relay is used to protect the selected special transformer, the Scott transformer. Different combinations of harmonics are adopted for testing. Relationship between the tripping time of the differential relay and quantity of harmonic is studied. We expect the results will be helpful and useful to the applications of differential relays for protecting special transformers.